INTRODUCTION
1. Urgency of the topic
Up to now, most of the research works on Nguyen Dinh Chieu and his literary heritage have only stopped at describing him as one of the most typical authors of the patriotic literature. He is the representative of the end of a literary era, but with the creation of the image of the nameless hero representing the resistance of the nation, he is the one who started, started only at one point, but it is an extremely meaningful point - for the literary movement against foreign invaders. And therefore, he is in the position of representing the whole nation, not just a part, a minority. Up to now, the research works on Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a representative with great contributions to the literature against colonialism and imperialism are still very few. Based on the above reason, we chose the above research issue as the topic of the thesis.
2. Research object and scope
The main research object of the topic is the anti-colonial literary heritage of Nguyen Dinh Chieu including patriotic anti-French poetry and literature, two Nom stories.Duong Tu Ha MauandFisherman and Woodcutter Medical Q&ATo ensure systematicity in the implementation process, we have surveyed all of his works.
The text of the work used for the survey in this thesis isNguyen Dinh Chieu Complete Works, including 2 volumes published by the University and Vocational High School Publishing House in 1980 - 1982. In addition, we have consulted the works of Nguyen Dinh Chieu by the Literature Department of the Institute of Social Sciences in Ho Chi Minh City, including:Luc Van Tien, Duong Tu Ha Mau, Fisherman and Woodcutter's Medical Questions and Answers, Patriotic Poetry and Literature Against the French by Nguyen Dinh Chieu, published in 1982-1983.
To ensure systematicity, we have expanded the scope of our survey of anti-colonial literature by Vietnamese Confucian scholars and literati during this period across the three regions of the country.
The scope of our research in this thesis is anti-colonial literature with a worldwide scope, but due to the framework of a thesis as well as limitations in materials, we only focus on clarifying some typical literatures such as Africa, Latin America, India, China - which have many similarities with Vietnam.
3. Research purpose and research tasks
The research objective of this topic is to prove and affirm Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneer author of the literature fighting against colonialism.
With the above research purposes, we define the research tasks of the thesis as follows:
Clarifying the concept of anti-colonial literature.
The premises for the formation of anti-colonial literature in the second half of the 19th century in Vietnam.
Nguyen Dinh Chieu's position in anti-colonial literature.
4. Research methods
The research object determines the research method; therefore, in this thesis we will use the key research methods such as interdisciplinary research types and methods.
In addition, we also use other research methods such as: historical - social methods as well as analysis, comparison and synthesis operations; on the basis of analyzing historical data, cultural and literary events, authors and works, the thesis synthesizes issues from which to generalize and draw conclusions.
5. New contributions of the thesis
New discoveries about Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneer author of the literature fighting against colonialism from the thesis can be applied in teaching about this author in high schools and universities; contributing another perspective on Nguyen Dinh Chieu, affirming his leading position in the literature fighting against colonialism not only in Vietnam.
Theoretical achievements and research results on anti-colonial literature in the world are applied to study Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial poetry and literature in the general context of anti-colonial Confucian poetry and literature in the late 19th century.
6. Thesis layout
The thesis consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1:Overview of research problem
Chapter 2:The system of basic literary themes, topics, and images in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century.
Chapter 3:Aesthetic ideals, literary concepts, genres, and languages in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
CONTENT
CHAPTER 1
1. OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.1 Overview of theoretical issues in the thesis
The thesis reviews the key concepts used in the development of the following chapters such as: nationalism, colonialism, anti-colonialism, patriotic literature and anti-colonial literature. Most of these concepts, although the reality they express has existed for a long time, have only officially appeared in dictionaries and documents preserved from the 19th century.
Besides, the thesis also devotes some pages to the research situation of colonialism in Vietnam.
1.2. Overview of the history of anti-colonial literature in some countries around the world
1.2.1. Anti-colonial literature in some African and Latin American countries
From a literary perspective, anti-colonial literature in the African region has seen the emergence of prominent authors such as South African writer Nadine Gordimer, who is considered one of the great writers of South Africa, tirelessly fighting against the brutal apartheid.
Latin American literature in the early period of the struggle against colonialism was still poor, progressed slowly and did not have its own distinct characteristics. Therefore, this can be considered a period of formation and preparation. From the pre-Columbian cultural period, Latin American literature fighting against colonialism was mainly in the form of oral tradition, although there were peoples such as the Aztecs and Mayas who had meticulously hand-copied Bibles. Oral literature of this period was mostly in the two fields of mythology and religious beliefs, which were recorded after the appearance of European colonists. Another typical example of the literature fighting against colonialism in Latin America in the 19th century was José Hernández, an Argentine, author of the epic poem Martin Fierro (1872). The journey of anti-colonial literature in Latin America had many changes. Among them, anti-colonial literature occupied a very important position. Anti-colonial literature in this region reached a literary-philosophical level, in which short stories were philosophical and had a great influence not only on all Latin American writers, but also on European and American writers. In the 20th century, poetry in Latin American anti-colonial literature often expressed love and political determination at the same time. The most special and exemplary was the Chilean Nobel Prize-winning poet Pablo Neruda.
1.2.2. Anti-colonial literature in some Asian countries:India, China
In the late 19th century, anti-colonial literature in Asia, one could easily see that the Western synthesis trend was leading humanity towards a material life at a level that was previously unimaginable and that the existence of society with democracy, social justice and human rights was gradually becoming the norms of society. The persuasiveness of the Western world made many peoples and societies voluntarily abandon their customs and ways of life. Although there were differences in speed and method, this meant the assimilation of values and the application of the synthesis trend of literature in this region, towards the trend of fighting against Western colonialism.
Anti-colonial literature in China
The late 19th century - early 20th century was a pivotal period in the history of Chinese literature, the intersection between the old and new eras, a period when most scholars and artists turned their eyes to the outside world, accepting completely new and challenging things, most notably the May Fourth literary revolution.
Anti-colonial literature in India
The richness of anti-colonial literature in India was a manifestation of the loyalty of the people to the power and destiny of the Indian nation. The emphasis on democracy and the expression of the individual self in the literature and institutions of England, France and America could not but provoke the Indian intelligentsia, loyal to nationalism and patriotism, to react to external oppression with their own exploration of the worthy origins of the country, with their pride in the heritage left by their ancestors. Tagore's novel Gora systematically analyzes this very natural conflict of cultural revival, a conflict that still haunts and colors not only our literature but almost every other aspect of life.
1.3. Political - military - economic - social context in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century
1.3.1. Political and military context in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century
The political, military, economic and social context of Vietnam in the 19th century showed that: after defeating the Tay Son dynasty, the Nguyen dynasty kings established a unified Vietnam. And the process of nation building that followed was an effort to "swim against the current": revive Confucianism. Internally, in addition to reviving Confucianism and maintaining the governorship in the North and South, they continued the limited "Han-Di" ethnic policy, limiting the spread of Catholicism. In terms of foreign affairs, they were aloof and cautious, refusing to have direct diplomatic relations with Westerners.
Compared to previous periods, the potential and fighting ability of the Nguyen army was seriously reduced. It could not keep up with the new achievements of Western military science under Tu Duc, causing the Nguyen army to be seriously backward, leading to disadvantages and ultimately failure when confronting the French invaders.
1.3.2. Socio-economic context in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century
The truly new element in Vietnamese society from the 16th century onwards was the appearance of Catholic priests and then, step by step, slowly but surely, deeply rooted and firmly consolidated, Catholic communities, both in Dang Ngoai and Dang Trong.
The imperial examinations were the only way the Nguyen Dynasty used to select its officials. This imperial examination system was not only modeled after the imperial examination system in China before the Qing Dynasty, but gradually, along with the increasing concentration of power by the Nguyen Dynasty kings, it degenerated into a specialized education in terms of imperial examinations, turning into a method to enter the path of fame.
1.4. Overview of the research situation on Nguyen Dinh Chieu as an anti-colonial literary author in Vietnam
1.4.1. Research situation on Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poetry and literature
Up to this point, research on Nguyen Dinh Chieu's literature and life has had a research history of more than a century and there has been a whole research work on this issue.History of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's receptionby Le Van Hy published in 2017. From 1982 in the workDirectory about Nguyen Dinh Chieuthen that number is 554 units, because Nguyen Dinh Chieu as one of the authors of Vietnamese literature has been schooled for a long time, so the number of articles and works about him is estimated to be more than 1000. Up to this point, there have been doctoral theses (associate doctoral) choosing Nguyen Dinh Chieu as the research subject. Those are Nguyen Phong Nam 1994, Le Van Hy 2015, Nguyen Phuoc Hoang 2016 and Ta Thi Thanh Huyen 2019.
From the early twentieth century until before the monographDo Chieu's feelingsWhen Phan Van Hum's work was published, the research on Nguyen Dinh Chieu was quite quiet. Nguyen Dinh Chieu during the years of resistance against the French from 1945 to 1954 can be found from the remaining documents through the following works:Vietnamese literary history summaryby Nghiem Toan (1949),Vietnamese literature history in the second half of the 19th century(1952) by Nguyen Tuong Phuong - Bui Huu Sung,Drafting Vietnamese literary history - Nom literature(1953) Thanh Lang.
In the North from 1954-1975, under the comprehensive leadership of the Party, the concept of each writer as a soldier on the cultural and artistic front was continued and maintained. That orientation dominated the entire literature, including the orientation of the entire process of research and exploitation of traditional heritage, including Nguyen Dinh Chieu. The culmination of this period focused on books.Nguyen Dinh Chieu, an example of patriotism and artistic work (1973). Research on Nguyen Dinh Chieu in Southern urban literature in the period 1954-1975 is notable for two literary history works by Pham The Ngu -A new summary of Vietnamese literary historyandVietnamese literature map(upper - lower 1967) by Thanh Lang. In addition, on the occasion of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's Anniversary in the South in 1971, a number of works were published such as:Nguyen Dinh Chieu Commemoration Ceremony;Collection of articles about Nguyen Dinh ChieuandAdditional collection of articles about Nguyen Dinh Chieu,This collection has gathered 79 articles about Nguyen Dinh Chieu from the beginning of the century to 1971, articles originating from the North - Vietnam are not present in this collection. Due to the rich and complex nature of approaches to Nguyen Dinh Chieu in literary life after 1975, we temporarily divide them into trends such as: literary history, genre, poetics. Regarding literary history, there are works by: Nguyen Loc, Le Tri Vien, Nguyen. Q. Thang, Nguyen Van Hau, Nguyen Phong Nam, Nguyen Pham Hung. Tran Nho Thin (see also Le Van Hy 2017; 129-139). Regarding the approach to Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works from a textual perspective, the typical work isNguyen Dinh Chieu Complete Worksconsists of 2 volumes, volume 1 in 1980 and volume 2 in 1982. The most prominent tendency to approach Nguyen Dinh Chieu from the perspective of poetics is the work of Nguyen Phong Nam:Nguyen Dinh Chieu from the perspective of poetics(1997).
1.4.2. The situation of researching Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial poetry and literature
Researchers of South Vietnam in the period 1954-1975, more or less, also mentioned the issue of anti-colonialism in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poetry and literature, and notably:Vietnamese literature mapAlthough the above researchers all mentioned the anti-colonial content in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works, it was Tran Ngoc Vuong with his essayThe regular characteristics of literary development seen through the works of an author, then the above issue is raised directly. The most recent opinion on the above issue is Tran Hoa Le's opinion inVietnamese Medieval Literature Textbook, episode 2.
Chapter 2. The system of basic literary themes, topics, and images in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
2.1. System of themes and topics in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
The central theme of this literary body is still the familiar theme: defending the religion and protecting the people. As soon as the French army's guns exploded at the Da Nang seaport in 1858, then at Gia Dinh in 1859, most Confucian scholars expressed an enthusiastic spirit of war, even "sacrificing oneself for justice", as the highest form of repaying "the king's debt to the country". And perhaps there has never been a period in the history of Vietnamese literature where the idea of "righteousness" was so unanimously honored and strongly affirmed by so many Confucian scholars. Among the Confucian scholars who wrote about this topic, the most typical one is Nguyen Dinh Chieu withFishermen and woodcutters ask and answer questions about medicine. Confucian medical poetry..
In the above-mentioned thematic system, the thesis focuses on examining typical aspects such as: attitudes and perceptions of colonial invasion, attitudes towards the resistance movement, the king and the court, and exclamations about the situation of the country.
2.2. System of themes and topics in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature
The theme system that runs through all of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works is to protect the religion, protect the people, be loyal to the king, and love the country. That is also the typical theme system of Vietnamese literature in the late 19th century, both before and after the French invasion of Vietnam. In this chapter, the thesis focuses on examining contents such as: protecting Confucianism from other religions, especially Catholicism, awareness and attitude towards Western civilization, the viewpoint of opposing colonial invasion to the end, attitude towards the court and those who collaborated and worked for the French, sorrow at the loss of the country and regret, nostalgia for the "old country", "old throne", choosing to live in seclusion to preserve integrity and practice medicine as well as spreading medical knowledge to help people in the colonial period.
2.3. Basic literary images in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
2.3.1. Basic images in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
The basic literary image of the anti-colonial literature of the late 19th century was the image of a loyal man, next to it was the image of a reclusive Confucian scholar, and finally the image of the Nguyen Dynasty king and mandarins, the image of colonial invaders and opportunists who collaborated as lackeys for the French.
2.3.2. Basic images in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu
The basic literary images in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature include: two representatives of Confucian ideals (Confucius and Quan De), resistance heroes such as Truong Dinh Phan Tong, peasant soldiers, and unknown heroes.
The most important contribution of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's patriotic and anti-colonial poetry and literature is in the collective image of the heroic peasant. It was not until Nguyen Dinh Chieu that the image of the anonymous heroic peasant appeared in poetry and literature with a different appearance and was viewed with a very different attitude. As someone who lived most of his life among those "small" people, the Confucian scholar Nguyen Dinh Chieu understood them deeply, "the traces of the separation between Confucian scholars and ordinary people almost disappeared" (Tran Ngoc Vuong 2018: 321). If he did not have a bachelor's degree and many years of pursuing his career, perhaps his integration into that life would have gone even further. That is why his "point of view" towards them is not a top-down view. No medieval literary author has been able to describe peasants with a realistic perspective without the difference between high and low like Nguyen Dinh Chieu. Their real life, their poverty but simplicity, entered his poetry naturally as it was, without any need for polishing. Such "elevation" of the peasant soldiers did not appear in the poetry of most Confucian scholars, but only in the works of Nguyen Dinh Chieu. But if we want to trace the factor that led to the awareness ahead of its time, of this "feat" (the word used by Tran Ngoc Vuong), of Nguyen Dinh Chieu, we must consider his entire poetic career. And the question here is: why could Nguyen Dinh Chieu immediately see the heroic qualities in the peasant soldiers and speak out to encourage them with a tragic, heroic eulogy, considered a masterpiece of the eulogy genre? Meanwhile, other Confucian scholars of the same period, even those who dared to stand up to recruit resistance soldiers, did not see that? The possible answer is: he lived among them and observed them closely enough, long enough to no longer hold on to the Confucian scholar's view of the peasants from above. In addition, the choice of writing didactic literature aimed at the general public as a serious career after his career path was cut short also had a great impact on Nguyen Dinh Chieu's perspective on this subject. But the most direct reason was that he witnessed the resistance movement in which the role of the peasants became prominent, their bravery and will to sacrifice themselves to protect their homeland. Recognizing and praising the potential strength in such ordinary people was a great step forward in the Confucian scholar's perception.
Chapter 3. Aesthetic ideals, literary concepts, genres, and languages in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
3.1. Aesthetic ideals and literary concepts in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
3.1.1. Aesthetic ideals and literary concepts in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
In terms of aesthetic ideals and literary concepts, the orthodox official literature with its main ideas of “literature conveys morality” and “poetry expresses one’s will” requiring people to live according to “functions” and “duties” in the order of Confucian society naturally dominated the literary scene. The poems and writings of most Confucian scholars unanimously sang the refrain of the ideal of “wisdom of the king and care for the people” as seen in the early prosperous days of the Le So dynasty. The spirit of this era was clearly revealed in the poems and writings of the Confucian scholars and poets who were typical of the Nguyen dynasty during this period. First of all, we must mention the “Gia Dinh Tam Gia”: Trinh Hoai Duc, Ngo Nhon Tinh and Le Quang Dinh.
3.1.2. Aesthetic ideals of literary conception in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu
His aesthetic ideal and concept of literature, first of all, is the order and harmony of the "five neighbors", "three relationships", the aesthetic criteria of morality according to him are loyalty and filial piety, for scholars in a state of order is to be wise and serve the people, in a chaotic time is to preserve integrity. Respect righteousness and despise money. Nguyen Dinh Chieu's concept of "literature" is also the traditional and orthodox concept of Confucianism: "literature conveys morality", "poetry expresses one's will".
3.2. The system of genres and languages in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu in the context of medieval Vietnamese literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
3.2.1. Genre system in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century
The genres used in the anti-colonial literature of Vietnamese Confucian scholars in the late 19th century were still traditional genres such as: proclamation, rhyme, and funeral oration, of which the proclamation and funeral oration were prominent. These forms were the most optimal choice at that time when the function and purpose of literature were directed towards the current and burning issues of the country: encouraging fighting, propagating patriotism, inciting hatred against colonial invaders and traitors.
3.2.2. Genre and language system in anti-colonial literature in Nguyen Dinh Chieu
Among the Southern literary authors of the same period, only Nguyen Dinh Chieu chose and devoted himself to the Nom narrative poem genre. He composed Nom narrative poems to propagate and protect Confucian morality, targeting the common people, not the intellectual class. And among the authors of funeral orations, no one could compare with him in the ability to write such tragic, hateful, and intensely inspiring funeral orations. Poetry only accounted for a small proportion of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works, but it was mainly a poem mourning the fallen leaders of the insurgent army.
The system of genres and languages that Nguyen Dinh Chieu used in his anti-colonial literature included Nom stories, funeral poems, and funeral orations.
In the Nom story genre, the thesis examines works such as:Duong Tu Ha Mau, Fisherman and Woodcutter Medical Questions and Answers.
Besides that, there is a funeral oration with four works:They are kind to the mother (the funeral oration for the mother), the funeral oration for the martyrs of Can Giuoc, the funeral oration for Truong Dinh, the funeral oration for the martyrs of the six provinces..
Nguyen Dinh Chieu was the one who wrote the most funeral poems compared to his contemporaries. Unlike funeral orations, Nguyen Dinh Chieu's funeral poems were only for specific characters such as Truong Dinh, Phan Tong and Phan Thanh Gian. For Truong Dinh and Phan Tong, he wrote not one but dozens of poems (12 for Truong Dinh, 10 for Phan Tong), all in Nom script. For Phan Thanh Gian, he only wrote two poems, one in Han script, one in Nom script. The number of funeral poems for each character more or less reflects the author's attitude towards that character.
CONCLUDE
1. The research direction of Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneer author of the anti-colonial literature in Vietnam is a new research direction with a subject that has been "intensively cultivated" to the point that there seems to be no more gaps. The typological method has proven to be suitable and effective in this research direction.
The thesis has identified the connotation and development process in different regions of the world of the key concepts: “colonialism”, “nationalism”, “anti-colonialism”, “anti-colonial literature”. In particular, the thesis focuses on Karl Marx's view that European colonialism is an indispensable factor for the progress of the world, “an unconscious tool of history”, “an important modernizing force” and part of “the process of transforming the feudal mode of production into the capitalist mode of production”.
Leaders of anti-colonial movements in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and elsewhere throughout the 20th century used this view of Marx, along with other anti-colonial views of Europe and America, to establish the basis, orientation and goals for the national liberation movement. However, in Vietnam, the "two-sided nature" of colonialism has not received due attention because French colonialism was associated with military invasion, economic exploitation and cultural repression, while the process of anti-colonialism was associated with the struggle for national liberation, so research works on this subject often emphasize the negative aspects and pay little attention to the positive impacts on structural changes in society, economy, science and education in Vietnam. The incomplete understanding of colonialism has resulted in the meaning and value of many progressive phenomena of Western culture not being fully understood, or even completely denied. Therefore, a thorough and scientific study of colonialism in Vietnam is necessary, especially for the topic of this thesis.
2. Anti-colonial literature is an important part of resistance literature, and more broadly, one of the manifestations of anti-colonialism in colonized countries as well as within the Western capitalist empires. Within the scope of this thesis, we are only interested in anti-colonial literature in colonial countries.
In Africa, the representative authors of anti-colonial literature are Egyptian poet ÓàfiΩ Ibràhìm, Aimé Ceasar, South African writer Nadine Gordimer, writer Chinua Achebe, Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong'o.
In Latin America, during the pre-Columbian cultural period, literature existed mainly in oral form; it was not until the late 18th and early 19th centuries that Criollo literature emerged with the aim of establishing a sense of national identity or origin; in the 20th century, anti-colonial literature in Latin America often expressed both love and political determination, with the exemplary representative being the Chilean Nobel Prize-winning poet Pablo Neruda.
In Asia, in two large and long-standing literary cultures, India and China, anti-colonial literature developed strongly but in two different directions. In China, initially, anti-colonial literature followed the trend of rejection and opposition, then developed in the direction of promoting modernization, learning Western techniques while still firmly preserving the sacred moral values of the East, culminating in the May Fourth literary revolution. Meanwhile, in India, nationalist writers reacted to external oppression by looking back to the golden heritage of the country with pride, typically Tagore, Aurobindo, Bankimchandra, etc.
In the overall picture of anti-world literature, anti-colonial literature in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century, with the creative force being Confucian scholars, of which Nguyen Dinh Chieu was the pioneer author, has not been studied independently but is still included in patriotic literary studies.
On the other hand, in about 1000 works and articles, 100 master's theses and 4 dissertations, there has not been any specialized work approaching Nguyen Dinh Chieu as an author of anti-colonial literature. Therefore, the thesis studying Nguyen Dinh Chieu from this approach will be able to provide new interpretations and bring new perceptions.
3. To analyze and explain Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial poetry and literature, studying the basic aspects of the political - military - economic - social context of the Nguyen Dynasty in the 19th century is an indispensable content of the thesis. Based on the records of the Nguyen Dynasty's historical books as well as many prestigious research works on this issue by researchers such as Tran Van Giau, Nguyen The Anh... the thesis draws out the following major characteristics:
In terms of politics: domestically, the Nguyen Dynasty kings advocated the revival of Confucianism, aiming towards the ideal Chinese model of ancient times; in terms of foreign affairs: they were cautious, refused to have direct diplomatic relations with Westerners, even closed the door without seeing the long-term harm of this policy, which would stunt foreign trade, bringing the necessary wealth, as well as promptly grasping the world situation and absorbing scientific and technological advances to have the right policies in the face of the risk of being invaded by colonial empires.
Regarding military: the early kings of the Nguyen Dynasty such as Nguyen Anh and Minh Mang paid great attention to modernizing the army, building ships, and casting guns to guard against foreign invasion. However, the very trend of "respecting literature and despising military", "restoring the past", and "rejecting the West" that these kings initiated caused the succeeding kings such as Thieu Tri and Tu Duc to pay less attention to this important aspect. As a result, the military capacity of the Nguyen Dynasty when confronting the French army was extremely backward and weak.
Regarding economy: Traditional Vietnamese society until the end of the 19th century was still an agricultural society, organized according to the small-scale agricultural economy. After unifying the country, the Nguyen Dynasty kings were consistent with the policy of "emphasizing agriculture and suppressing commerce": commerce and foreign trade were hindered by the government's administrative apparatus, the court never wanted to establish official diplomatic relations with European countries and refused to sign trade treaties with Western countries, the government also tried every way to hinder the trade of common people with Westerners and "outsourced" this field to the Chinese. This prevented the domestic merchant class from developing. This was one of the deep-rooted causes that played a decisive role in the fate of the country.
Regarding society: the population at the beginning of Tu Duc's reign was about 5 million people with a Confucian social model: the highest was the king and the royal family, followed by the mandarin apparatus, the standing army, and finally the "four classes" of scholars, farmers, workers, and merchants. In which, scholars were the "intermediate" class deeply rooted in the countryside, so even if they became mandarins, they did not form an aristocratic class with their own privileges. In addition, the newly emerging population was the Christian groups whose isolated existence in the traditional Vietnamese society led to increasingly fierce discrimination and conflicts between religions.
Regarding education and examinations: following the trend of restoration and the spirit of Confucianism, Nguyen Dynasty education focused on examinations and examinations modeled after the examination system in China before the Qing Dynasty. This training method may be suitable for an agricultural country following Confucianism, but it cannot create a team of intellectuals capable of coping with the attack of science and technology. Although at the end of Tu Duc's reign, the court hastily carried out some reforms to save the situation, because they did not originate from a true desire to learn but were only coping, they were often abandoned when facing difficulties and obstacles.
4. The study of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature cannot be separated from the examination of the anti-colonial literature of the Vietnamese literati in the second half of the 19th century, because he was a part of it. They were national intellectuals, representing ideological and political trends that dominated the development of the system of concepts of law, religion, ethics, aesthetics... of Vietnamese society during this period. This body of poetry and literature is examined using the typological method with four main points: aesthetic ideals, themes - subjects, basic images and genres.
Regarding the aesthetic ideals of Confucian poetry and literature in the second half of the 19th century: the Confucianization process of nearly thirty years from 1820 to 1848 caused the poetry and literature of most Confucian scholars to unanimously promote the ideal of “loyalty to the king and service to the people”. However, from 1847 until the Can Vuong movement failed completely in 1888, the core values of Confucianism faced fierce challenges. When the king was still attached to the country, “loyalty to the king” went hand in hand with “patriotism”, but when the king and the court abandoned the people, ceding land to seek peace to maintain their interests, many Confucian scholars abandoned the ideal of “loyalty to the king” and followed the ideal of “loyalty and righteousness”.
At the same time, the idea of “righteousness” was universally praised by many Confucian scholars because it encouraged the resistance fighters to endure hardships, sacrifice, and strive to overcome fierce challenges. However, the extreme side of this idea made Confucian scholars unable to be calm and clear-headed enough to understand the enemy. Therefore, their sacrifices, though noble, were ineffective.
The major themes and topics of Confucian poetry and literature in the second half of the 19th century include: the attitudes and perceptions of Confucian scholars towards colonial invaders (rejection, contempt, and aversion stemming from patriotic motives and the spirit of “defending morality”); the attitudes of Confucian scholars towards the resistance movement (“doing righteous deeds regardless of success or failure”), the king and the court (before and after 1862, when the court signed the peace treaty, the spirit of loyalty to the king gradually faded, the tendency to act “for righteousness” grew stronger, even the literati in Thanh-Nghe Tinh region raised the slogan “determined to fight both the court and the French”); the sorrow of Confucian scholars before the situation of the country and morality being destroyed by invaders.
The basic images in Confucian poetry and literature of this period are: the image of loyal people with majestic spirit, righteous thoughts and spirit of martyrdom; the image of Confucian scholars who lived in seclusion; the image of the weak and cowardly Nguyen Dynasty kings and mandarins; the image of colonialists and opportunists who worked for the colonialists.
The literary genres of this period were mainly functional genres such as edicts, memorials, letters, proclamations, funeral orations, poems, and prose. The Confucian authors of this period mobilized almost all traditional genres to serve resistance activities, calling for and encouraging the resistance movement, praising and mourning those who sacrificed for the cause, expressing opposition to the colonialists and their lackeys, expressing feelings about the current situation and the country's situation, offering advice to the court, etc. Most of these genres belonged to the official, functional literature. However, due to the intense emotions of the authors, many works leaned towards literary art.
5. The characteristics of the anti-colonial literature of Vietnamese Confucian scholars in the second half of the 19th century also appeared almost completely in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works of this period.
Nguyen Dinh Chieu's aesthetic ideal always aimed at the order and harmony of the three bonds and five constants. He promoted the role model of a person, valued reputation over profit, and "valued righteousness over money". Throughout his life, Nguyen Dinh Chieu never strayed from the Confucian concept of "literature conveys morality" and "poetry expresses one's will".
The system of themes and topics in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works revolved around the goal of "protecting religion, protecting the people, being loyal to the king, and loving the country". He enthusiastically defended Confucianism against other religions, especially Christianity in the Nom story Duong Tu Ha Mau. However, due to limited access to information, he did not understand the nature of Christianity correctly, so his arguments were unconvincing and ineffective. Regarding Western civilization, Nguyen Dinh Chieu maintained a completely negative attitude from beginning to end. It is worth noting that he viewed it in close connection with Christianity and colonialism to warn against the ambition of invasion. However, like other Confucian scholars of his time, he did not push his perception further to see the two-sided nature of colonialism. He advocated fighting colonial invaders to the end and enthusiastically joined the fight very early to encourage the spirit of the resistance fighters. When the movement failed and the court ceded land to the French, he organized a “refugee movement” expressing his non-cooperation with the invaders. His late works, especially the work “Fisherman and Woodcutter Questions and Answers on Medicine,” reflected his choice to live in seclusion to preserve his integrity, reminding and setting an example for Confucian scholars on how to behave as “a virtuous person living in a chaotic world.”
The basic literary images in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poetry and literature during this period include: two representatives of Confucian ideals: Confucius (whom he considered the counterpart of Jesus in Christianity) and Guan Yu (representing the ideal hero and loyal subject - a very necessary model for the court and the country at that time); the images of resistance heroes and peasant soldiers were Nguyen Dinh Chieu's greatest success: he was the only Confucian author who honored people of ordinary origins as heroes according to Confucian ideals.
The genres in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's writings during this period include: Nom stories Duong Tu - Ha Mau and Ngu tieu van dap y thuat - two Nom stories with thematic nature (ideological - religious stance and behavior to preserve the integrity of Confucian scholars when facing "the end of time"); funeral orations are the genre in which Nguyen Dinh Chieu achieved the most success, with four works, the most outstanding of which is "Van te nghi si Can Giuoc", poignant, tragic, heroic; Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poems are mainly funeral poems and praise poems: Nguyen Dinh Chieu was the person who wrote the most funeral poems during this period and he also wrote many "moral" praise poems to praise and affirm Confucianism, praise historical figures, most notably Quan Vu, praise symbolic animals such as the horse that flies away the dew (symbolizing loyalty), the goat (symbolizing Westerners), the lotus blooming in autumn (symbolizing talented people who do not meet their time), unfavorable natural conditions such as storms, heavy rain, floods (symbolizing the "heavenly calamities" that the country is suffering)...
6. The new interpretations of Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneer author of the literature fighting against colonialism in the thesis can be applied in teaching in high schools and universities.
The success in approaching Nguyen Dinh Chieu in this direction will lay the foundation for future studies on anti-colonial literature in Vietnam on a larger scale, covering a much wider scope.
Author:ussh
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