Abstract of PhD Thesis by: Hoang Thi Cuong

                                                                      INTRODUCTION

1. The urgency of the topic

To date, most studies on Nguyen Dinh Chieu and his literary legacy have only described him as one of the most representative authors of patriotic literature. He represents the culmination of a literary era, but by creating the image of the anonymous hero representing the nation's resistance, he was the initiator – an initiator at only one point, but an extremely significant one – of the literary movement against foreign invasion. Therefore, he stands on behalf of the entire nation, not just a particular group or minority. Currently, there are very few studies on Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a representative who made significant contributions to the literature against colonialism and imperialism. For this reason, we have chosen this research topic for our dissertation.

2. Research Subjects and Scope

The main subject of this research is the anti-colonial literary legacy of Nguyen Dinh Chieu, including patriotic poems and prose against the French, and two Nôm stories.Duong Tu Ha MauandFisherman and Woodcutter's Medical Q&ATo ensure a systematic approach during implementation, we conducted a survey of all of his works.

The literary texts used for analysis in this thesis are:Complete Works of Nguyen Dinh Chieu, comprising 2 volumes published by the University and Vocational High School Publishing House in 1980-1982. In addition, we consulted works by Nguyen Dinh Chieu compiled by the Literature Department of the Institute of Social Sciences in Ho Chi Minh City, including:Luc Van Tien, Duong Tu Ha Mau, Ngu Tieu Medical Questions and Answers, Patriotic Poems and Writings Against the French by Nguyen Dinh ChieuPublished in 1982-1983.

To ensure systematicity, we have expanded the scope of our survey to include anti-colonial literature by Vietnamese Confucian scholars and literati during this period, covering all three regions of the country.

Our research scope in this thesis is anti-colonial literature, which has a global reach. However, due to the limitations of a thesis and the availability of materials, we will focus on clarifying the literatures of several representative regions such as Africa, Latin America, India, and China – regions with many similarities to Vietnam.

3. Research objectives and research tasks

The research objective of this thesis is to demonstrate and affirm Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneering author of the literary movement fighting against colonialism.

With the research objectives outlined above, we have identified the following research tasks for this thesis:

Clarify the concept of anti-colonial literature.

The prerequisites for the formation of anti-colonial literature in Vietnam in the latter half of the 19th century.

Nguyen Dinh Chieu's position within the anti-colonial literary movement.

4. Research Methodology

The research subject dictates the research methodology; therefore, in this thesis, we will utilize key research methods such as interdisciplinary research types and methods.

In addition, we also used other research methods such as the socio-historical method, as well as analytical, comparative, and synthetic operations; based on the analysis of historical facts, cultural and literary events, authors and works, the thesis synthesizes the issues, from which it generalizes and draws conclusions.

5. Novel contributions of the thesis

The new discoveries about Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneering author of the anti-colonial literary movement from this dissertation can be applied to teaching about this author in high schools and universities; contributing another perspective on Nguyen Dinh Chieu, affirming his leading position in the anti-colonial literary movement not only in Vietnam.

The theoretical achievements and research findings on anti-colonial literature worldwide are applied to the study of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial poetry and prose within the broader context of anti-colonial Confucian poetry and prose of the late 19th century.

6. Structure of the thesis

The thesis consists of three chapters:

Chapter 1:Overview of the research problem

Chapter 2:The system of themes, topics, and basic literary imagery in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of Vietnamese medieval literature against colonialism in the latter half of the 19th century.

Chapter 3:Aesthetic ideals, literary concepts, genres, and language in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of medieval Vietnamese anti-colonial literature in the latter half of the 19th century.

CONTENT

CHAPTER 1

1. OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

1.1 Overview of theoretical issues in the dissertation

This dissertation reviews key concepts used in the development of the following chapters, such as nationalism, colonialism, anti-colonialism, patriotic literature, and anti-colonial literature. Most of these concepts, although they have existed for a long time in reality, only officially appeared in dictionaries and surviving texts from the 19th century.

In addition, the thesis also devotes several pages to the research situation on colonialism in Vietnam.

1.2. Overview of the history of anti-colonial literature in some countries around the world

1.2.1. Anti-colonial literature in some African and Latin American countries

From a literary perspective, anti-colonial literature in Africa has produced prominent authors such as the South African writer Nadine Gordimer, considered one of South Africa's greatest writers, who tirelessly fought against the brutal apartheid regime.

Early Latin American literature during the anti-colonial struggle was impoverished, progressing slowly and lacking distinctive characteristics. Therefore, it can be considered a formative and preparatory period. From the pre-Columbian era, Latin American literature fighting against colonialism was primarily in oral form, although some peoples like the Aztecs and Maya had meticulously crafted handwritten Bibles. Oral literature of this period mostly fell within the realms of mythology and religious beliefs, recorded after the arrival of European colonizers. Another example of anti-colonial literature in 19th-century Latin America is José Hernández, an Argentinian author of the epic poem Martin Fierro (1872). The journey of anti-colonial literature in Latin America has been marked by many changes, with anti-colonial literature occupying a very important position. Anti-colonial literature in this region reached a philosophical level, with philosophical short stories having a profound influence not only on Latin American writers, but also on European and American writers. In the 20th century, poetry in Latin American anti-colonial literature often simultaneously expressed love and political determination. Most notably, and arguably a model example, is the Chilean Nobel laureate, Pablo Neruda.

1.2.2. Anti-colonial literature in some Asian countries:India, China

In the late 19th century, anti-colonial literature in Asia readily revealed a trend towards Western-influenced synthesis, guiding humanity toward a materialistic life previously unimaginable. The existence of societies with democracy, social justice, and human rights gradually became societal norms. The persuasive power of the Western world led many nations and societies to voluntarily abandon their customs and ways of life. Although there were differences in speed and method, this represented the adaptation of values ​​and the application of the synthesisal trend in regional literature, oriented towards the struggle against Western colonialism.

Anti-colonial literature in China

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were a pivotal period in Chinese literary history, a crossroads between the old and new eras, a time when most scholars and artists looked to the outside world, embracing entirely new and challenging ideas, most notably the May Fourth Movement.

Anti-colonial literature in India

The expression of intellectual richness in anti-colonial literature in India reflects people's loyalty to the strength and destiny of the Indian nation. The emphasis on democracy and the expression of individual self in British, French, and American literature and institutions inevitably stirred Indian intellectuals, loyal to nationalism and patriotism, to react against external oppression with their exploration of the country's worthy origins and their pride in their ancestral heritage. Tagore's novel *Gora* systematically analyzes this very natural conflict of cultural revival, a conflict that continues to haunt and embellish not only our literature but also most other aspects of life.

1.3. Political, military, economic, and social context in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century

1.3.1. Political and military context in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century

The political, military, economic, and social context of 19th-century Vietnam reveals that after defeating the Tay Son dynasty, the Nguyen emperors established a unified Vietnam. The subsequent nation-building process was an attempt to "reverse the tide": the revival of Confucianism. Domestically, besides reviving Confucianism and maintaining the governor-general system in the North and South, they continued the policy of limiting the Han-Yi ethnic group and restricting the spread of Catholicism. In foreign relations, they maintained a cautious and distant stance, refusing direct diplomatic relations with Westerners.

Compared to previous periods, the potential and fighting capabilities of the Nguyen Dynasty army had seriously declined. The failure to keep pace with new achievements in Western military science under Emperor Tu Duc resulted in the Nguyen Dynasty army becoming severely outdated, leading to disadvantages and ultimately defeat when confronting the French invaders.

1.3.2. Socio-economic context in Vietnam in the second half of the 19th century

The truly new element in Vietnamese society from the 16th century onwards was the appearance of Catholic missionaries, and then, step by step, slowly but surely, taking deep root and firmly establishing Christian communities, both in the North and the South.

The imperial examination system was the only method the Nguyen dynasty used to select its officials. This system not only modeled itself after the Chinese imperial examination system before the Qing dynasty, but gradually, with the increasing concentration of power by the Nguyen emperors, it degenerated into an education system focused solely on career advancement, becoming a means to achieve fame and fortune.

1.4. Overview of the research situation on Nguyen Dinh Chieu as an author of anti-colonial literature in Vietnam

1.4.1. Research Status on Nguyen Dinh Chieu's Poetry and Prose

Up to this point, research on the life and writings of Nguyen Dinh Chieu has spanned over a century, and there is already a dedicated research work on this topic, namely:History of the reception of Nguyen Dinh ChieuPublished by Le Van Hy in 2017. Since 1982 in this work.Directory about Nguyen Dinh ChieuThe number was already 554 units, but since Nguyen Dinh Chieu, as one of the leading figures in Vietnamese literature, has long been a subject of formal education, the estimated number of articles and works about him exceeds 1000. To date, several doctoral (and associate doctoral) dissertations have chosen Nguyen Dinh Chieu as their research subject. These include Nguyen Phong Nam (1994), Le Van Hy (2015), Nguyen Phuoc Hoang (2016), and Ta Thi Thanh Huyen (2019).

From the beginning of the 20th century until before the publication of the treatise.The Heart of Do ChieuAfter Phan Van Hum's work was published, the research on Nguyen Dinh Chieu became relatively quiet. Research on Nguyen Dinh Chieu during the resistance war against the French from 1945-1954 can be found in the following surviving documents:A Concise History of Vietnamese Literatureby Nghiem Toan (1949),Vietnamese literary history in the latter half of the 19th century(1952) by Nguyen Tuong Phuong - Bui Huu Sung,Drafting the History of Vietnamese Literature - Literature in Nom Script(1953) Thanh Lãng.

In North Vietnam from 1954-1975, under the comprehensive leadership of the Party, the concept that each writer was a soldier on the cultural and artistic front continued and was maintained. This orientation dominated the entire literary landscape, including the direction of research and exploitation of traditional heritage, among which was Nguyen Dinh Chieu. The peak results of this period focused on books.Nguyen Dinh Chieu: A role model of patriotism and artistic labor (1973)Of particular note are two notable works on literary history by Pham The Ngu in the context of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's work in the urban literature of Southern Vietnam during the period 1954-1975.A Newly Compiled Concise History of Vietnamese LiteratureandOutline of Vietnamese Literature(Parts 1-12, 1967) by Thanh Lãng. Additionally, during the commemoration of Nguyễn Đình Chiểu in the South in 1971, several works were published, such as:Proceedings of the Nguyen Dinh Chieu Commemoration Ceremony;A collection of articles about Nguyen Dinh ChieuandA supplementary collection of articles about Nguyen Dinh Chieu.This collection has compiled 79 articles about Nguyen Dinh Chieu from the beginning of the century to 1971; articles originating from North Vietnam are not included in this collection. Due to the rich and complex nature of approaches to Nguyen Dinh Chieu in post-1975 literary life, we have tentatively divided them into trends such as: literary history, genre, and poetics. Regarding literary history, there are works by: Nguyen Loc, Le Tri Vien, Nguyen Q. Thang, Nguyen Van Hau, Nguyen Phong Nam, Nguyen Pham Hung, and Tran Nho Thin (see also Le Van Hy 2017; 129-139). Regarding the approach to Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works from a textual perspective, the typical work is...Complete Works of Nguyen Dinh ChieuIt consists of two volumes, volume 1 in 1980 and volume 2 in 1982. The most prominent approach to Nguyen Dinh Chieu from a poetics perspective is the work of Nguyen Phong Nam:Nguyen Dinh Chieu from a poetics perspective.(1997).

1.4.2. The research situation on Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial poetry and literature.

Researchers studying South Vietnam during the period 1954-1975 have, to varying degrees, addressed the anti-colonial theme in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poetry and writings, and notably,Outline of Vietnamese Literatureby Thanh Lãng. Although the aforementioned researchers all mentioned the anti-colonial content in Nguyễn Đình Chiểu's works, it was Trần Ngọc Vương with his essay that truly highlighted this.The regular characteristics of literary development as seen through the works of a single author.Then the above issue is raised directly. Regarding this issue, the most recent opinion is that of Tran Hoa Le inTextbook on Medieval Vietnamese LiteratureVolume 2.

Chapter 2. The basic themes, topics, and literary imagery in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of Vietnamese medieval anti-colonial literature in the latter half of the 19th century.

2.1. Thematic and thematic systems in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century

The central theme of this literary movement remained the familiar one: defending righteousness and protecting the people. As soon as the French guns roared at the Da Nang port in 1858, and later at Gia Dinh in 1859, most Confucian scholars expressed a fervent warlike spirit, even "sacrificing themselves for righteousness," as the highest form of repaying the "debt to the king and the nation." And perhaps never before in the history of Vietnamese literature has the idea of ​​"righteousness" been so strongly and unanimously honored and affirmed by so many Confucian scholars. Among the Confucian scholars who wrote on this theme, Nguyen Dinh Chieu is a prime example.Fishermen and woodcutters discuss medical knowledge; Confucian medicine in verse..

Within the aforementioned thematic framework, the dissertation focuses on examining typical aspects such as: attitudes and perceptions of colonial aggression, attitudes towards the resistance movement, the king and the court, and reflections on the country's situation.

2.2. The thematic system in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature

The overarching theme throughout Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works is the protection of Confucianism, the preservation of the people, loyalty to the monarch, and patriotism. This is also a typical theme of Vietnamese literature in the late 19th century, both before and after the French invasion of Vietnam. This chapter of the thesis focuses on examining aspects such as: defending Confucianism against other religions, especially Catholicism; perceptions and attitudes towards Western civilization; the unwavering resistance against colonial aggression; attitudes towards the court and those who collaborated with and acted as puppets for the French; sorrow over the loss of the country and the destruction of homes; regret and longing for the "old country" and "old throne"; and the choice to live in seclusion to preserve his integrity and to practice medicine and disseminate medical knowledge to help the people in colonial rule.

2.3. Basic literary imagery in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of Vietnamese medieval anti-colonial literature in the latter half of the 19th century.

2.3.1. Basic imagery in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century

The fundamental literary image of the anti-colonial literature of the late 19th century was that of the loyal and righteous person, alongside the image of reclusive Confucian scholars, and finally the image of the Nguyen dynasty's kings and officials, the image of the invading colonialists, and the opportunists who collaborated as puppets for the French.

2.3.2. Basic imagery in anti-colonial literature by Nguyen Dinh Chieu

The fundamental literary figures in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature include: two representatives of Confucian ideals (Confucius and Guan Yu), resistance heroes such as Truong Dinh and Phan Tong, peasant militia, and anonymous heroes.

The most important contribution of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's patriotic, anti-colonial poetry and literature lies in the collective image of the peasant hero. It was with Nguyen Dinh Chieu that the image of the anonymous peasant hero appeared in poetry and literature with a different appearance and was viewed with a very different attitude. Having lived most of his life among these "ordinary" people, the Confucian scholar Nguyen Dinh Chieu understood them deeply; "the traces of the separation between Confucian scholars and ordinary people almost disappeared" (Tran Ngoc Vuong 2018: 321). Without his high school diploma and years of pursuing a scholarly career, his integration into that life would likely have been even greater. It is for this reason that his "perspective" on them was not a top-down view. No other medieval literary author could describe the peasant with such a realistic perspective, without the disparity between high and low status, as Nguyen Dinh Chieu did. Their practical struggles for survival, their poverty yet simplicity, naturally found their way into his poetry, without any need for elaborate embellishment. This "elevation" of the peasant militia is absent from the poetry of most Confucian scholars, found only in the works of Nguyen Dinh Chieu. However, to trace the factors that led to this ahead-of-its-times, this "extraordinary achievement" (to use Tran Ngoc Vuong's term), Nguyen Dinh Chieu must examine his entire literary career. The question then arises: why was Nguyen Dinh Chieu able to immediately recognize the heroic qualities in the peasant militia and exhort them with a tragic and heroic eulogy, considered a masterpiece of the eulogy genre? Meanwhile, other Confucian scholars of his time, even those who dared to recruit resistance fighters, failed to see this? The most likely answer is: he lived among them and observed them closely enough, for long enough, to no longer cling to the condescending, scholarly view of the peasants. Furthermore, his serious pursuit of didactic literature aimed at the masses after his official career ended also significantly influenced Nguyen Dinh Chieu's perspective on this group. However, the most direct reason was that he witnessed the resistance movement in which the role of the peasants in defending their homeland stood out, their bravery and self-sacrifice. Recognizing and praising the latent strength in such ordinary people was a major step forward in the Confucian scholar's understanding.

Chapter 3. Aesthetic ideals, literary concepts, genres, and language in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of medieval Vietnamese anti-colonial literature in the second half of the 19th century.

3.1. Aesthetic ideals and literary concepts in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of Vietnamese medieval anti-colonial literature in the latter half of the 19th century.

3.1.1. Aesthetic ideals and literary concepts in the anti-colonial Confucian literature of the second half of the 19th century

In terms of aesthetic ideals and literary concepts, the mainstream official literature, with its guiding principles of "literature as a vehicle for morality" and "poetry as a means of expressing aspirations," requiring people to live according to their "functions" and "duties" within the order of Confucian society, naturally dominated the literary scene. The poetry and prose of most Confucian scholars unanimously echoed the ideal of "serving the ruler and benefiting the people," as seen in the early prosperous period of the Le Dynasty. This spirit was clearly revealed in the poetry and prose of the representative Confucian poets of the Nguyen Dynasty during this period. First and foremost are the "Three Scholars of Gia Dinh": Trinh Hoai Duc, Ngo Nhon Tinh, and Le Quang Dinh.

3.1.2. Aesthetic ideals and literary concepts in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature.

His aesthetic ideals and conceptions of literature were, first and foremost, based on the hierarchical order and harmony of the "five principles" and "three obligations." His moral aesthetic criteria were loyalty and filial piety; for scholars in times of peace, it was about serving the ruler and benefiting the people, while in times of turmoil, it was about upholding integrity. He valued righteousness over wealth. Nguyễn Đình Chiểu's conception of "literature" was also the traditional and orthodox Confucian concept: "literature serves to convey morality," and "poetry expresses aspirations."

3.2. The system of genres and language in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature within the context of Vietnamese medieval anti-colonial literature in the latter half of the 19th century.

3.2.1. The system of genres in Confucian literature against colonialism in the second half of the 19th century

The literary genres used in the anti-colonial literature of Vietnamese Confucian scholars in the late 19th century remained traditional forms such as proclamations, rhyming verses, and funeral orations, with proclamations and funeral orations being particularly prominent. These forms were the optimal choices at the time, as the function and purpose of literature were directed towards current and pressing issues facing the country: encouraging struggle, promoting patriotism, and inciting hatred of colonial invaders and traitors.

3.2.2. The system of genres and language in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature

Among the literary authors of Southern Vietnam at the time, only Nguyen Dinh Chieu chose and devoted his efforts to the Nôm verse narrative genre. He composed Nôm verse narratives to propagate and defend Confucian morality, targeting ordinary people rather than the intellectual class. And among the authors of funeral orations, no one could match him in his ability to write such tragic, resentful, and intensely inspiring eulogies. Poetry occupied only a small proportion of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works, but it mainly consisted of poems mourning the fallen leaders of the resistance movement.

The genre and language system that Nguyen Dinh Chieu used in his anti-colonial literature included Nôm stories, elegiac poems, and funeral orations.

In the genre of Nôm stories, the thesis examines works such as:Duong Tu Ha Mau, Fisherman and Woodcutter's Medical Q&A.

In addition, there are funeral orations with four works:They are kind and exemplary in their writings (eulogy for the mother), eulogy for the martyrs of Can Giuoc, eulogy for Truong Dinh, eulogy for the martyrs who died in battle in the six provinces..

Nguyen Dinh Chieu was the most prolific writer of elegiac poems among his contemporaries. Unlike funeral orations, Nguyen Dinh Chieu's elegiac poems were dedicated to specific figures such as Truong Dinh, Phan Tong, and Phan Thanh Gian. For Truong Dinh and Phan Tong, he wrote not just one but dozens of poems (12 for Truong Dinh, 10 for Phan Tong), all in Nom script. For Phan Thanh Gian, he only wrote two poems, one in Chinese characters and one in Nom script. The number of elegiac poems for each figure, to varying degrees, reflects the author's attitude towards that person.

 

CONCLUDE

1. The study of Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneering author of the anti-colonial literary movement in Vietnam is a novel approach, focusing on a subject that has been so extensively studied that it seems there is no room for further research. The typological method has proven its suitability and effectiveness in this research direction.

The dissertation identified the content and development process in different regions of the world of key concepts: "colonialism," "nationalism," "anti-colonialism," and "anti-colonial literature." In particular, the dissertation focused on Karl Marx's view that European colonialism was an indispensable element for world progress, "an unconscious instrument of history," "an important modernization force," and part of the "transition process from feudal to capitalist modes of production."

Leaders of anti-colonial movements in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and elsewhere throughout the 20th century applied this perspective of Marx, alongside other anti-colonial viewpoints from Europe and America, to establish the basis, direction, and goals for the national liberation movement. However, in Vietnam, the "dual nature" of colonialism has not received adequate attention because French colonialism was associated with military invasion, economic exploitation, and cultural repression, while the anti-colonial process was linked to the struggle for national liberation. Therefore, studies on this subject often emphasize the negative aspects while paying little attention to the positive impacts on structural changes in Vietnam's society, economy, science, and education. This incomplete understanding of colonialism has resulted in the meaning and value of many progressive phenomena of Western culture not being fully understood, or even completely denied. Therefore, a thorough and scientific study of colonialism in Vietnam is necessary, especially for the topic of this dissertation.

2. Anti-colonial literature is an important part of resistance literature, and more broadly, one of the manifestations of anti-colonialism in colonized countries as well as within Western capitalist empires. Within the scope of this thesis, we are only interested in the anti-colonial literature in colonized countries.

In Africa, prominent authors of anti-colonial literature include the Egyptian poet ÓàfiΩ Ibràhìm, Aimé Ceasar, the South African writer Nadine Gordimer, the Chinua writer Achebe, and the Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong'o.

In Latin America, during the pre-Columbian cultural period, literature existed primarily in oral form; it was not until the late 18th and early 19th centuries that Crionloic literature emerged, aiming to establish a sense of national identity or origin; in the 20th century, anti-colonial literature in Latin America often simultaneously expressed love and political determination, exemplified by the Nobel Prize-winning Chilean poet, Pablo Neruda.

In Asia, in the two major and long-standing literary traditions of India and China, anti-colonial literature flourished but followed two distinct trends. In China, anti-colonial literature initially followed a trend of rejection and opposition, later developing towards promoting modernization and adopting Western technology while steadfastly preserving the sacred moral values ​​of the East, culminating in the May Fourth Movement. Meanwhile, in India, nationalist writers reacted to external oppression by proudly revisiting their country's glorious heritage, exemplified by Tagore, Aurobindo, and Bankimchandra.

Within the broader context of anti-colonial literature worldwide, anti-colonial literature in Vietnam during the latter half of the 19th century, with its literary force comprised of Confucian scholars, of whom Nguyen Dinh Chieu was a pioneering author, has not been studied independently but remains grouped together with studies of patriotic literature.

On the other hand, among approximately 1000 works and articles, 100 master's theses, and 4 dissertations, no specialized work has approached Nguyen Dinh Chieu as an author of anti-colonial literature. Therefore, this dissertation, studying Nguyen Dinh Chieu from this perspective, has the potential to offer new interpretations and provide new insights.

3. To analyze and interpret Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial poetry and literature, understanding the fundamental aspects of the political, military, economic, and social context of the Nguyen Dynasty in the 19th century is an indispensable part of this thesis. Based on records from Nguyen Dynasty historical texts as well as many reputable research works on this issue by scholars such as Tran Van Giau, Nguyen The Anh, etc., the thesis draws the following major characteristics:

Politically: domestically, the Nguyen dynasty emperors advocated the revival of Confucianism, aiming towards the ideal Chinese model of ancient times; in foreign affairs, they were cautious, refusing direct diplomatic relations with Westerners, even closing themselves off without realizing the long-term harm of this policy, which would stifle the foreign trade necessary for wealth and power, as well as hinder their ability to grasp world affairs and adopt scientific and technological advancements to develop appropriate countermeasures against the threat of invasion by colonial empires.

In terms of military affairs: the early Nguyen dynasty kings, such as Nguyen Anh and Minh Mang, paid great attention to modernizing the army, building ships, and casting cannons to defend against foreign invasion. However, the "prioritizing literature over military prowess," "reviving the old ways," and "rejecting Western influence" trends initiated by these kings led their successors, such as Thieu Tri and Tu Duc, to pay less attention to this crucial aspect. As a result, the Nguyen dynasty's military capabilities when confronting the French were extremely backward and weak.

Economically, traditional Vietnamese society until the end of the 19th century remained an agricultural society, organized according to a small-scale farming system. After unifying the country, the Nguyen dynasty consistently pursued the policy of "prioritizing agriculture and suppressing commerce": trade and foreign commerce were hampered by the government's administrative machinery. The court never sought to establish formal diplomatic relations with European countries and refused to sign trade treaties with Western nations. The government also sought to hinder trade between ordinary citizens and Westerners, completely delegating this sector to the Chinese diaspora. This prevented the development of the domestic merchant class. This was one of the underlying reasons that decisively shaped the country's destiny.

Socially, the population at the beginning of Emperor Tự Đức's reign was approximately over 5 million people, following a Confucian social model: at the top were the king and the royal family, followed by the bureaucracy, the standing army, and finally the "four classes" of scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Among them, Confucian scholars were the "intermediate" class, deeply rooted in the countryside, so even if they held official positions, they did not form an aristocratic class with special privileges. In addition, a new population emerged: groups of Catholics whose isolated existence within traditional Vietnamese society led to increasingly intense discrimination and conflict between Catholics and non-Catholics.

Regarding education and examinations: following the trend of restoration and the spirit of Confucianism's exclusivity, education during the Nguyen dynasty focused on examinations, modeled after the Chinese examination system before the Qing dynasty. This training method might have been suitable for an agricultural nation with a Confucian tradition, but it could not produce an intellectual workforce capable of confronting the onslaught of science and technology. Although the court hastily implemented some reforms at the end of Tu Duc's reign to salvage the situation, these reforms, stemming from a lack of genuine concern for progress and merely a reactive approach, were often abandoned when difficulties and obstacles arose.

4. The study of Nguyen Dinh Chieu's anti-colonial literature cannot be separated from the study of the anti-colonial literature of the Vietnamese literati and intellectuals in the latter half of the 19th century, as he was a part of that body. They were the national intellectuals, representing the ideological and political trends that shaped the development of the system of concepts regarding law, religion, morality, aesthetics, etc., in Vietnamese society during this period. This body of poetry and prose is examined using a typological method with four main points: aesthetic ideals, themes/topics, basic imagery, and genres.

Regarding the aesthetic ideals of Confucian poetry and literature in the latter half of the 19th century: the nearly thirty years of Confucianization from 1820 to 1848 led to the widespread emphasis on the ideal of "serving the monarch and benefiting the people" in the poetry and literature of most Confucian scholars. However, from 1847 until the complete failure of the Can Vuong movement in 1888, the core values ​​of Confucianism faced fierce challenges. While the monarch was still connected to the country, "loyalty to the monarch" went hand in hand with "patriotism," but when the monarch and the court abandoned the people, ceding land to secure peace in order to maintain their own interests, many Confucian scholars abandoned the ideal of "loyalty to the monarch" and followed the ideal of "loyalty to righteousness."

At the same time, the ideology of "righteousness" was unanimously praised by many Confucian scholars because it encouraged the spirit of resistance fighters to endure hardship and sacrifice and strive to overcome fierce challenges. However, the extreme aspect of this ideology prevented Confucian scholars from calmly and clearly understanding the enemy. Therefore, their sacrifices, though noble, were ineffective.

The major themes and topics of Confucian poetry and literature in the latter half of the 19th century included: the Confucian scholars' attitudes and perceptions of colonial invaders (rejection, contempt, and animosity stemming from patriotic motives and a spirit of "protecting morality"); the Confucian scholars' attitudes towards the resistance movement ("doing what is right regardless of success or failure"), the king and the court (before and after 1862, when the court signed the peace treaty, the spirit of loyalty to the monarch faded, and the tendency to act "for the sake of righteousness" strengthened, with even scholars in the Thanh-Nghe-Tinh region raising the slogan "determined to fight both the court and the West"); and the Confucian scholars' sorrow at the state of the country and morality being destroyed by the invaders.

The fundamental imagery in the poetry and literature of Confucian scholars during this period included: the image of loyal individuals with majestic spirit, righteous ideology, and a spirit of self-sacrifice; the image of reclusive Confucian scholars; the image of weak and cowardly Nguyen dynasty rulers and officials; and the image of colonialists and opportunists who served as their henchmen.

The literary genres of this period were primarily functional genres such as edicts, memorials, petitions, letters, proclamations, funeral orations, poetry, and prose. Confucian scholars of this era mobilized almost all traditional genres to serve the resistance movement, calling for and encouraging resistance, praising and mourning those who sacrificed themselves for the cause, expressing opposition to colonialism and its collaborators, conveying their feelings about the times and the country's situation, and offering strategic advice to the court… Most of these genres belonged to the official, functional literary category. However, due to the intense emotions of the authors, many works leaned heavily towards artistic literature.

5. The characteristics of the anti-colonial literary movement of Vietnamese Confucian scholars in the latter half of the 19th century are also almost fully present in the works of Nguyen Dinh Chieu during this period.

Nguyen Dinh Chieu's aesthetic ideals always aimed towards the hierarchical order and harmony of the Three Cardinal Principles and Five Constant Virtues. He emphasized the ideal of a person of high status, valuing reputation over profit, and "prioritizing righteousness over wealth." Throughout his life, Nguyen Dinh Chieu never deviated from the Confucian concepts of "literature as a vehicle for morality" and "poetry as an expression of aspirations."

The thematic system in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works revolves around the goals of "protecting the religion, safeguarding the people, loyalty to the king, and patriotism." He enthusiastically defended Confucianism against other religions, especially Catholicism, as seen in the Nôm story Duong Tu Ha Mau. However, due to limited access to information, he misunderstood the true nature of Catholicism, resulting in unconvincing and ineffective arguments. Regarding Western civilization, Nguyen Dinh Chieu maintained a completely negative attitude from beginning to end. Notably, he viewed it in close connection with Catholicism and colonialism to warn against aggressive ambitions. However, like other Confucian scholars of his time, he did not push his understanding further to see the dual nature of colonialism. He advocated for the fight against colonial aggression to the end and enthusiastically joined the movement early on to encourage the spirit of resistance fighters. When the movement failed and the imperial court ceded land to France, he organized a "retreat" movement to express his non-cooperation with the invaders. His later works, especially "Fisherman and Woodcutter's Questions and Answers on Medicine," reflect his choice to live in seclusion to preserve his integrity, reminding and setting an example for Confucian scholars on how "a virtuous person should behave in times of turmoil."

The fundamental literary figures in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poetry and prose during this period include: two representatives of Confucian ideals, Confucius (whom he viewed as the counterpart to Jesus in Christianity) and Guan Yu (representing the ideal hero and loyal subject – a type of person essential to the court and the country at that time); the image of resistance heroes and peasant militiamen is Nguyen Dinh Chieu's greatest success: he is the only Confucian author who glorifies people of ordinary backgrounds as heroes according to Confucian ideals.

The genres in Nguyen Dinh Chieu's works during this period include: the Nôm stories Duong Tu - Ha Mau and Ngu Tieu Van Dap Y Thuat - two Nôm stories with thematic content (ideological and religious stances and ways of behaving to preserve the integrity of a Confucian scholar when facing "difficult times"); funeral orations are the genre in which Nguyen Dinh Chieu achieved the most success, with four works, the most outstanding of which is "Funeral Oration for the Martyrs of Can Giuoc," poignant, tragic, and heroic; Nguyen Dinh Chieu's poetry mainly consists of elegies and poems of praise: Nguyen Dinh Chieu was the most prolific elegy of this period, and he also wrote many poems of praise for "the Way," aiming to glorify and affirm Confucianism, praising historical figures, most notably Guan Yu, and praising animals with symbolic meanings such as the horse withered in the frost (a symbol of loyalty), the goat (a symbol of Westerners), the lotus blooming in autumn (a symbol of talented people who do not meet their time), and unfavorable natural conditions such as storms, heavy rain, and floods (symbols of the "heavenly calamities" that the country was suffering)...

6. The novel interpretations of Nguyen Dinh Chieu as a pioneering author of the anti-colonial literary movement presented in this dissertation can be applied to teaching in secondary schools and universities.

The success of approaching Nguyen Dinh Chieu from this perspective will lay the foundation for future research on anti-colonial literature in Vietnam on a much larger scale and encompassing a much broader scope.