Vietnam in the 20th Century - From Confrontation to Cooperation: A Historical-Cultural Approach

1. Many researchers believe that Vietnamese history is a history of wars. As a destiny and fate of history, in its long process of development, the Vietnamese nation has had to constantly confront wars of aggression against powerful empires. In the work "Unity in Diversity in Vietnamese HistoryProfessor of history Phan Huy Le once summarized: Not counting the resistance wars against foreign invaders during the Hung Kings era reflected in legends, just from the resistance war against the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC to 1975, the Vietnamese people had to wage 15 wars to defend their homeland. Of these, 12 resistance wars were victorious and 3 were unsuccessful. These unsuccessful resistance wars led to many serious consequences for Vietnamese history, culture, and society.[1].

From this summary, we see that the resistance against the invading army of Trieu Da failed in 179 BC, leading to a 1,000-year period of Chinese domination, and independence was only achieved in 938 after the Battle of Bach Dang led by Ngo Quyen. The resistance against the Ming Dynasty in 1406-1407 failed, resulting in two decades of Ming rule (1407-1427). The resistance against the French by the Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945) and the Can Vuong movement (1885-1896) also failed, causing the Vietnamese people to suffer under French colonial rule for over 80 years (1858-1945). These are tragic and dark chapters in Vietnamese history!

It is noteworthy that, during the period of foreign domination, despite being exploited, oppressed, and suffering many losses and sacrifices, the Vietnamese people never surrendered. They continuously rose up and fought bravely and persistently to regain their independence and freedom. In total, the Vietnamese people waged more than 200 uprisings and wars of national liberation. The period of resistance against foreign invaders spanned 12 centuries, accounting for more than half of Vietnam's history. Almost every century saw Vietnam's struggle against invasion. For example, in the 13th century, within 30 years (1258-1288), the army and people of Dai Viet, under the leadership of the Tran dynasty, had to fight three times against the expansionist ambitions and invasions of the Mongol-Yuan empire, one of the most powerful empires in the world at that time.[2]In the 18th century, during a five-year period (1784-1789), the Vietnamese people simultaneously fought against the Qing dynasty in the North and Siam in the South.[3]In general, in those wars to defend the homeland, the invading armies were often many times stronger. Many wars also clearly demonstrated the goal of conquest and destruction, the most concrete manifestation of which was the plot to assimilate and destroy cultural heritage. It can be said that, in the history of Asian nations, few countries have faced such arduous challenges related to the survival of the nation as Vietnam. To survive, develop, and to be strong enough to resist foreign invaders, the Vietnamese people had to unite as a single entity, upholding patriotism and the awareness of protecting their territorial sovereignty and cultural identity.[4].

Obviously, Vietnamese history cannot be solely the history of wars, but also the history of cultural creations; of economic relations and activities; the history of social strata, with the elite and the most ordinary people contributing to history; of political and legal institutions; of ideological trends and movements; of religious sects and beliefs; and of international and regional relations.[5]...However, war has become a constant threat, even a "typical characteristic" of Vietnamese history. This characteristic has profoundly impacted the psychological life, cultural behavior, and development policies of Vietnam, not only before and during wars but also leaving lasting consequences in the thinking of a nation in the post-war era.

President Ho Chi Minh - the national liberation hero and outstanding cultural figure of the Vietnamese people.

2. In my personal opinion, among the ups and downs of Vietnamese history, the 20th century was the century in which the Vietnamese nation had to confront the most severe and intense challenges. For nearly the first half of this century, Vietnam had to concentrate all its strength on fighting against the colonial rule of the French.[6]Vietnam achieved victory in the war of national defense amidst the concluding stages of World War II, creating favorable conditions for the Vietnamese revolution. However, in Asia, the Pacific War had a strong impact on regional political life. In fact, the August Revolution of 1945 not only marked the end of eight decades of French colonial rule but also the end of the Japanese military presence in Vietnam.[7]However, in the complex international circumstances of the time, under the guise of allied forces, the French army returned to Indochina, followed by the British army and Chiang Kai-shek's forces. With the spirit of "Nothing is more precious than independence and freedom." was declared by President Ho Chi Minh in the documentDeclaration of IndependenceOn September 2, 1945, the entire Vietnamese nation rose up against the invading forces.[8]In that sacred and noble revolutionary career, the role of an outstanding leader emerged: President Ho Chi Minh.The name of President Ho Chi Minh is associated with the most important events in the history of the heroic struggle of the Vietnamese people for freedom and independence. This struggle is an invaluable contribution to the national liberation movement and the world revolutionary process, to consolidating the forces of peace, democracy, and social progress on our planet... Under the banner of President Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnamese people successfully carried out the August Revolution of 1945, dealing a fatal blow to the colonial system of imperialism in Asia. Under the banner of President Ho Chi Minh, the Vietnamese people established the first worker-peasant state in Southeast Asia - the Democratic Republic of Vietnam - and defended that state during the nine-year resistance war against French colonialism.”[9].

President Ho Chi Minh read the Declaration of Independence, giving birth to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945.

Throughout the period of 1946-1954, alongside the armed struggle, the Ho Chi Minh government also implemented courageous and skillful diplomatic policies to gain international support and recognition. Finally, after nine years of continuous fighting, with the victory at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, Vietnam restored independence to half of its territory.[10].

According to the Geneva Accords, the 17th parallel, along the Ben Hai River, was designated as the temporary dividing line between North and South Vietnam.[11]The Vietnamese people's resistance against the invasion by the United States and its allies lasted 21 years (1954-1975) before achieving final victory. However, subsequent conflicts and border wars caused significant losses to the Vietnamese people. The country went through extremely difficult times in terms of politics, economics, diplomacy, cultural development, and maintaining social stability.

Thus, it can be seen that, like the 13th century, the 20th century was a century in which the Vietnamese nation had to confront many harsh political challenges. The survival of the nation was seriously threatened. Never before in a century had so many foreign invading armies appeared simultaneously on Vietnamese territory. And never before had Vietnam suffered so many sacrifices and losses! But, Vietnam stood firm, gradually recovered and developed after the wars. This was the great rebirth of a nation with strong cultural vitality. In some respects, the wars forged the character, fostered patriotism, and instilled a yearning for peace in each individual and the entire Vietnamese nation.

War is the most severe and comprehensive challenge to the vitality of a nation. To fight and defeat the enemy, the Vietnamese people had to mobilize all human and material resources, concentrating the highest efforts of the country and its people. It is often called the "war".People's War”[12]A sacred war to protect the most sacred values. That war was created by a combined force in which patriotism, the consciousness of protecting national independence, and the preservation of traditions and cultural roots were emphasized more than ever before.[13]And it is these factors that have created unity, solidarity, and immense strength for the Vietnamese nation.

The Dien Bien Phu victory in 1954 shook the world.

3. After the fierce challenges of the wars passed, by the 1980s, the domestic and international situations underwent fundamental changes. Recognizing that it was impossible to continue maintaining the "traditional" management policies and foreign policy perspectives of the Cold War era, Vietnam embarked on the Doi Moi (Renovation) process in 1986, the first step being the abolition of the bureaucratic subsidy mechanism and the implementation of a socialist-oriented market economy. As an agricultural nation, Vietnam also implemented many renovation policies to pave the way for the development of economic sectors, science and technology, education, and culture.[14]As a result, in a short period of time, from a country constantly facing food shortages and famine, Vietnam was able to fundamentally solve its food problem and become one of the world's largest rice exporters. Along with crude oil and other agricultural products, rice has become an important export commodity, bringing in foreign currency for socio-economic development, stabilizing the lives of over 80% of the rural population, and contributing to the development of several new industries and businesses in Vietnam.[15].

The 1973 Paris Agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam.

But importantly, after implementing the reform policy, Vietnam's understanding of the global situation and forces also underwent significant changes. In the approximately 10 years from 1986 to 1995, Vietnam made remarkable efforts to fundamentally resolve existing problems in international relations. With the motto "We want to be friends with all countries.”[16]Vietnam sent a message of peace, expressing its goodwill to build, strengthen, and develop friendly cooperative relations with other nations and writing a new chapter in international relations. This peaceful foreign policy has enhanced Vietnam's position on the international stage. Through the implementation of an increasingly open foreign policy, countries in the region and the world have gained a better and more accurate understanding of Vietnam. Entering the 1990s, along with the joint efforts of the international community, Vietnam successfully resolved the Cambodian issue, continued to strengthen its special friendship with Laos, gradually improved relations with ASEAN countries, and, importantly, made significant progress in normalizing relations with China and improving relations with the United States.[17]Regarding China, after many efforts, in March 1991, Chinese Premier Li Peng declared that "Vietnam-China relations have thawed." By November 1991, the leaders of the two countries officially announced the normalization of relations. For the countries in the Northeast Asian region, Vietnam continued to strengthen its special relationship with Japan and in 1992 officially established diplomatic relations at the state level with South Korea.[18].

In the historical journey since the implementation of the Doi Moi (Renovation) policy, two significant moments have occurred: 1995 and 2006. 1995 can be considered a year of many important turning points in Vietnam's foreign relations. Some commentators argue that it was a year of great diplomatic success for Vietnam. On July 28, 1995, Vietnam officially became the seventh member of ASEAN. Also in that year, following the lifting of the embargo against Vietnam on February 3, 1994, on July 11, 1995, US President Bill Clinton officially announced the normalization of relations with Vietnam. With these important diplomatic victories, a period of Vietnam's isolation and blockade in international relations ended. In fact, Vietnam gained more favorable opportunities to integrate with the general developments of the region and the world.

WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy and Vietnamese Deputy Prime Minister Pham Gia Khiem raise a toast to celebrate Vietnam's official accession to the WTO in 2006 - Photo: AFP

More than a decade later, in 2006, Vietnam achieved two more significant diplomatic victories: becoming a full member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and successfully hosting the APEC Summit in Hanoi. That year, Vietnam-Japan relations were elevated to a strategic level. Relations with China and the United States also saw significant improvements. With China, the two countries resolved two of the three fundamental sticking points in their bilateral relationship.[19]A new wave of investment is pouring into Vietnam. Vietnam is becoming an attractive investment environment for major international economic, banking, and financial corporations.

From the reconstruction of the picture and historical process described above, several observations and interpretations can be drawn:

1. Vietnam's position and the annexation schemes of international powers.

In fact, providing a thorough answer to the question of Vietnam's strategic position throughout history is not an easy task. However, with its potential and abundant tropical resources, favorable trading ports for the development of trade relations, and a large workforce, it is clear that Vietnam occupies an important position on the regional and global map.

Stretching along the Indochina Peninsula, with a coastline of 3,260 km, Vietnam occupies a strategic position at the crossroads of mainland Southeast Asia and island Southeast Asia, and between Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia. Vietnam is a destination for many migration flows and a crossroads of various cultures in Southeast Asia, as well as between Southeast Asia and China and India. As many researchers have pointed out, historically, while Indian influences reached Southeast Asia through religious and peaceful means, the peoples of the region, especially those sharing land borders and strategically important maritime trade routes, have consistently and strongly faced political and military pressure from the North.

As a small country with a deep sense of national identity, existing alongside a large empire, Vietnam was among the first and most consistently subjected to intense pressure from the North, not only during the flourishing periods of those dynasties but also during times of shifting and declining power centers. In the process of expanding influence southward, Vietnam served as a gateway for the Northern empires' advance into Southeast Asia due to its advantageous land and sea transportation links. Similarly, in modern times, Western powers, from the southern seas, seeking to penetrate the Indochinese peninsula and the vast market of southern China, considered Vietnam a crucial target to conquer. Objectively speaking, that strategic location provides an extremely favorable basis for Vietnam's economic development and cultural exchange in peacetime, but it also easily makes Vietnam a target and a battleground for historical clashes and wars of aggression by foreign powers.[20].

Vietnam successfully hosted the APEC 2017 Summit in Da Nang.

World leaders at APEC 2017

2. Regarding the origins and indomitable spirit of the Vietnamese people.

As mentioned above, from the Qin invasion in the 3rd century BC to 1975, over a period of 22 centuries, Vietnam had to wage 15 wars of resistance to defend its country, and the time spent fighting against foreign invaders amounted to 12 centuries.[21]It can be seen that, as an early-formed nation in Southeast Asia, the inhabitants of the Van Lang and Au Lac states had an early awareness of their own distinct culture and territorial sovereignty. Throughout 1,000 years of Chinese rule, along with the process of "Sinicization" is a process of cultural self-defense."de-SinicizationSome authors argue that the process “Sinicization"This influence was strong only among certain upper social classes and concentrated in the Northeast region. The density of Han tombs and tombs in the Han style in this area partly proves this point. In that sense, although dominating Vietnam for a relatively long time, the influence of Chinese culture generally could not extend too far beyond the Red River Delta and some areas with indigenous cultural foundations and heavily influenced by Southeast Asian culture. However, over time, through various means and channels, that culture has permeated certain aspects of cultural life and some social classes. During the thousand years of Chinese rule, it is difficult to imagine that Chinese culture could not penetrate through the bamboo hedges of villages. In fact, some external cultural elements, customs, and traditions have become integrated into Vietnamese culture, especially among the upper classes of society."

Furthermore, it must be acknowledged that in villages and remote areas, traditional Vietnamese cultural elements, closely related to and sharing a common foundation with Southeast Asian cultures, have been preserved as a stable core structure. The key point is that, despite the strong pressure and continuous influence of Chinese culture, it has failed to degrade or break down this traditional structure. A deep awareness of origins, territorial sovereignty, and a unique cultural tradition is the intrinsic strength, the fundamental factor in both localizing and preserving this structure. This structure is also preserved within the close relationships between village members, in shared customs, cultural activities, and a profound sense of community. This awareness is the sacred bond between members of society and can become a unifying factor and driving force for transformation.Nationalism,PatriotismAnd that patriotic spirit is always multiplied many times over when national interests and sovereignty are threatened.

Furthermore, if we consider this process of cultural exchange from a cultural analysis and layering perspective, we can see that the influences of China on Vietnam can be divided into three basic categories or cycles. First, there are the influences of Chinese culture spreading to Southeast Asia in general and Vietnam in particular from Southern China. Next, there are the influences from Northern China. And finally, there are the influences from Northern China that have been "Southern China"In that sense, the first cultural circle was both very close to and a part of Southern culture in the broader sense. This cultural circle, upon penetrating Vietnamese society, generally did not provoke strong reactions."

Importantly, while resolutely fighting to protect its political independence, Vietnam has not rejected external cultural heritage. With this perspective,Without being inferior to China, one is not different from China."(Not inferior to China, not different from China) generations of Vietnamese people have found in the treasure trove of regional cultural heritage the capacity for creative development and are ready to embrace that heritage not only to supplement but also to strengthen their necessary resilience. In fact, in Vietnamese cultural traditions, from political institutions, laws, writing, education... there are many cultural imprints from the North. In the work..."Some thoughts on Vietnamese history and Vietnamese thought.Professor Ha Van Tan once remarked: "In the history of Vietnamese thought, we often encounter the refinement of existing ideological weapons to suit the needs of Vietnam, the greatest and most urgent of which is the preservation of the nation's survival."[22].

It should also be added that this cultural strength also stems from the reception of influences from Indian culture, especially the humanistic ideas and perspectives of Buddhism.[23]Based on its indigenous culture and profound sense of national sovereignty, Vietnamese culture has absorbed many elements and components of Chinese and Indian civilizations, and from the 16th-17th centuries, influences from Western culture, to supplement and strengthen its core values ​​and traditional cultural structure.[24]It can be said that Vietnamese culture found its inherent strength and vitality in the process of the struggle for national independence and truly flourished after 10 centuries of Northern domination. This explains why, shortly after gaining independence, with a belief in the nation's longevity, and with a new position, vision, and vitality, Dai Viet became a regional power and was strong enough to confront the wars of aggression from powerful forces from Asia and Europe.

3. Vietnam - A dynamic nation

Vietnam is a dynamic economy in the region.

Some researchers argue that Vietnam is an agricultural country, and Vietnamese culture is agricultural culture. Agriculture is a characteristic and identity of Vietnamese and Southeast Asian culture. However, as we all know, Southeast Asia is not a homogeneous region or center of civilization.[25]Each culture of the ethnic groups in the region is a continuation and integration through the intermingling of different traditions. In this context, Vietnamese culture is also a unified culture in diversity. The process of territorial expansion and exploration of the southern lands by the Vietnamese people gradually led to the convergence of a multifaceted cultural tradition across regions, with three fundamental foundations: the Dong Son culture in the North, the Sa Huynh culture in the Central region, and the Oc Eo - Funan culture in the South of Vietnam. The natural conditions of being a peninsula and having a high coastal index are also among the reasons for the dynamic development in the Vietnamese people's cultural traditions.[26].

Furthermore, due to the unique characteristics of a polytheistic nation, and the adoption of cultural elements from several major Eastern civilizations, when new cultural and religious elements penetrated Vietnamese society, the indigenous culture was naturally able to accept them without major or intense cultural conflicts. Cultural tolerance and the ability to translate that tolerant ideology into practical actions in cultural behavior are among the valuable shared values ​​of Eastern civilization and Vietnamese culture.

And there is also much talk about Asian values; of Buddhist and Confucian thought; of community relationships and organization; of order and close emotional bonds between family members... for the future development of humanity.

Many cultural researchers argue that, within traditional Vietnamese culture, the Vietnamese people are emotionally driven, even sentimental. I believe that's true, but it's not the whole story. The Vietnamese also possess a strong practical mindset. They value practical things. Through their thinking and reason, they organized social forces to build large-scale irrigation systems. The Vietnamese also organized many battles of strategic significance with high military art and achieved historical victories. With this practical mindset, the Vietnamese also abandoned old institutions, methods, and policies of socio-economic management to resolutely implement the Doi Moi (Renovation) policy. With this practical mindset, they also changed their "traditional" foreign policy, shifting from a unipolar to a multipolar, multilateral approach to international relations in order to share benefits and keep pace with the progress of humanity. Vietnam has successfully resolved many complex relationships and shifted from confrontation to dialogue for the prosperity and development of the region.[27]In the context of dialogue and cooperation, Vietnam has proactively closed many painful chapters of the past to look towards the future and not once again miss out on great opportunities for national development and for promoting regional and international relations and cooperation.

In fact, Vietnam's Doi Moi (Renovation) process was not about adjusting or changing certain specific policies, but rather...a comprehensive innovation processThis represents a turning point, defining a new path for the nation. That path aligns with the country's aspirations for progress, its historical realities, and the new international context. A new development model oriented towards integration is being established in Vietnam.[28].

A confident, dynamic, and creative Vietnam is truly integrating with the rapid advancements of human civilization in the new era and hopes to make positive contributions to strengthening cooperative relationships for the prosperity of East Asia and the world in the 21st century.