Summary of PhD thesis: Tran Xuan Thanh

INTRODUCTION

1. Reason for choosing the topic

Mining is one of the important economic activities with a long history in Vietnam and in the world. In Vietnam, during the Le - Trinh period (17th - 18th century) and the early Nguyen Dynasty (first half of the 19th century), when mining became an activity that attracted many merchants and workers, the Chinese, with their advantages in capital, experience and technology, became the dominant force in mining activities in the upper Dang Ngoai region. By the second half of the 19th century, after completing the conquest of Indochina, the French colonialists carried out large-scale colonial exploitation here. Mineral mines in Bac Ky not only became a place for investment, expansion, and establishment of infrastructure systems to serve the exploitation, transportation and export of resources here, but also contributed to Vietnam's integration into the world economy through participation in the regional trade system as well as the system of other colonies. Moreover, mining in Tonkin in particular and in Indochina in general also contributed to reviving the economic and political position of French colonialism.

Research on mining activities of foreigners in Northern Vietnam will provide a systematic and comprehensive perspective on the emergence and establishment of mining activities of the Chinese in the upper region of Dang Ngoai (from the 17th century to the first half of the 18th century) as well as of French capitalism in Bac Ky (from the late 19th century to the early 20th century).

Research on the topicForeign mining activities in northern Vietnam from the late 17th century to the early 20th centuryIt also contributes to explaining the similarities and differences in the management policies of Vietnamese governments towards foreign mining activities; analyzes and evaluates the impacts of mining activities on Vietnamese society as well as the effects on Southern China and the position of France in the capitalist world.

2. Research objectives and tasks

The basic objective of the thesis is to recreate and analyze the socio-economic picture, explain the emergence of foreign mining activities in Northern Vietnam; analyze and explain the similarities and differences in the management policies of the governments in Vietnam and the impacts of this activity on Vietnam and some countries in the regional and world context from the end of the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century.

3. Research objects and scope

3.1. Research subjects

The basic research object of the thesis is the relationship between the context of countries and regions in East Asia and the world with the mining activities of foreigners in Northern Vietnam from the late 17th century to the early 20th century.

3.2. Scope of research             

In terms of space: East Asia with the northern highlands of Vietnam as the center. In terms of time: late 17th century to 1919.

4. Research methods

The thesis uses the basic principles of Marxist historical methodology, in which the historical method and the logical method are the main ones. The systematic, analytical and comparative methods are also applied in the thesis.

5. Sources

Firstly, historical documents, geographical records, and some Chinese historical books have been translated and edited into Vietnamese. Secondly, records of Western missionaries, explorers, travelers, and merchants about Dang Ngoai in the pre-colonial period, which was a period of strong development of diplomatic, commercial, and religious relations between Western countries and Dang Ngoai Dai Viet.,expressed in the form of memoirs, diaries... Third, archival documents, press documents, and reports from the French colonial period are particularly important sources for the topic, providing data on mineral potential, the process of exploration, searching, exploitation, processing, and consumption of minerals by French colonialists in Bac Ky and Indochina. There are also decrees, orders, other administrative documents on mines and monographs. Fourth, research works at home and abroad; books, newspapers, magazines, theses, dissertations related to the research topic...

6. Contribution of the thesis

Contribute to a systematic and comprehensive study of the emergence and domination of mining activities by the Chinese and French in Northern Vietnam in the national and regional contexts in the historical flow from the late 17th century to the early 20th century; analyze and explain the consequences of management policies of the Vietnamese authorities on mining activities of foreign powers and their impacts on Vietnamese society and some countries in different historical periods.

7. Thesis layout

In addition to the introduction, conclusion, bibliography and appendix, the content of the Thesis includes 5 chapters:

Chapter 1: Overview of research situation

Chapter 2: Premises and factors leading to foreign mining activities in Vietnam

Chapter 3: Chinese Mining from the Late 17th Century to the First Half of the 19th Century

Chapter 4: French Mining in Tonkin (1884-1919)

Chapter 5: Some comments on foreign mining activities in Vietnam.

Chapter 1

OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH STATE OF THE PROBLEM

1.1. Studies on mineral resources and mining potential in Vietnam

First are the records and descriptions of the economic and social situation of Dai Viet in general and Dang Ngoai in particular in the 17th and 18th centuries. Then are the most detailed and specific reports and records serving the French government in Indochina and the mother country. Memoirs, records, and research of politicians, economists, or mining engineers sent to Indochina by the French government. There are also memoirs, geographers, geographical records, research works... of politicians, merchants, engineers, scientists...

1.2. Studies on mining in Vietnam from the late 17th century to the early 20th century

In recent years, along with the trend of researching the commercial activities of foreign merchants and their impact on countries in the East Asian region, there have also been a number of studies on the mining sector as well as mining activities involving foreign elements - especially the Chinese and French in Vietnam.

1.3. Results and issues to be resolved

Although domestic and foreign scholars have mentioned mining activities in Vietnam, they have only focused on separate aspects, on each political regime, each historical period, each region and each locality, and have not aimed at comprehensive and continuous studies on mining activities of foreigners in Northern Vietnam throughout the entire historical process from the late 17th century to the early 20th century. These are limitations that later research works must overcome and resolve.

Chapter 2

PREMISES AND FACTORS LEADING TO FOREIGN MINING ACTIVITIES IN VIETNAM

2.1. Geographical zoning and mineral resources in northern Vietnam

The northern highlands of Vietnam are not only the area of ​​contact between northern Vietnam and southern China, but also the gateway to important maritime trade routes through a system of river mouths and estuaries leading to the Gulf of Tonkin - one of the important gateways and trading centers in the international trade system. In addition, the abundant mineral resources have made this place an economic driving force, providing important resources to maintain the survival and development of the communities here over the centuries.

2.2. The birth and development of mining in the world and Vietnam

In the world, although mining activities appeared very early, they only developed explosively when the demand for coal and steel (as fuel for steam engines) to serve the industrial revolutions in Western Europe (late 18th century and early 19th century) was strong. After that, the demand for non-ferrous metals and fossil fuels (as fuel for internal combustion engines) to serve the second industrial revolution in Europe and North America from the mid-19th century further caused mining activities to develop widely throughout the colonial systems of Western colonialists. In addition, the development of trade, railways, electricity and world wars further increased the demand for consumption of non-renewable resources. The mining sector in Vietnam is also not outside the vortex of influence from fluctuations in the economic and political situation in the world and the region.

2.3. Socio-economic development policies of governments in Vietnam in the regional context in the 17th-18th centuries

The development of the commodity economy in Dai Viet and the search for markets by Western capitalist countries strongly promoted commercial and handicraft activities in Dang Ngoai. The Le - Trinh government implemented a number of policies to develop the socio-economy, including the management of mining activities in the upper Dang Ngoai region. This policy not only created conditions for domestic merchants but also allowed Chinese merchants to invest capital to exploit mineral mines in this area.

2.4. The mining needs of the Chinese in Dai Viet

The increasing demand for precious metals due to China's population explosion and growing trade with the West as well as the need to find new resources were among the important factors that pushed miners and traders to move to southern regions of China such as Guangxi, Yunnan and northern Vietnam.

2.5. Nmining needs ofPeopleFranceliveNorth Vietnam

During the industrial revolution in the early 19th century in France, metallurgy was a pillar and foundation for the industrialization and modernization process. In addition, the shortage of coal and metal supplies after the Franco-Prussian War as well as the effort to compete with Britain and other countries in Europe prompted the French government to conduct large-scale resource exploitation in Indochina and other colonies in its colonial system. On the other hand, conducting mining in Tonkin would help the colonial government in Indochina achieve its goal: minimal investment but maximum profit. Investing and exploiting mines in Tonkin also created a buffer zone for the French to conduct trade activities to potential markets in the southern region of China to connect Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi with regional trade systems such as Saigon, Hong Kong, Japan, the Philippines, Singapore, etc.

Chapter 2 Summary

With favorable geographical location, abundant mineral resources and the openness of the political and economic environment during the Le - Trinh period, it was a strong driving force attracting Chinese communities to cross the border and conduct mining activities in Dang Ngoai of Dai Viet in the 17th - 18th centuries. In addition, the massive immigration of Chinese people after the movement to overthrow the Qing and restore the Ming and the formation of a large number of Chinese communities as a stable entity in Dai Viet society from the 18th - 19th centuries combined with favorable policy factors of the Nguyen lords and the early kings of the Nguyen dynasty were considered the basis for the emergence of Chinese mining activities in Northern Vietnam in the first half of the 19th century. The 18th - 19th centuries were also the period when Western colonial powers sought to conduct invasions and expand their colonies to the Far East in search of rich resources to compensate for the shortage of resources in the mother country. France's interest in the benefits of resources and cheap labor in Indochina was realized through the process of pacifying and invading Indochina, including Bac Ky, establishing a colonial regime and conducting large-scale colonial exploitation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries here.

Chapter 3

CHINESE MINING FROM THE LATE 17TH CENTURY TO THE EARLY HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

3.1. Chinese mining in Dang Ngoai during the Le-Trinh period

3.1.1.Management policyof the Le-Trinh government on Chinese mining activities in Dang Ngoai

The Le-Trinh government began to implement a policy of strictly managing mines from the stages of exploitation, transportation to trading by monopolizing the management of mine exploitation. This policy was implemented by the government from 1760 with the supervisory regime. Accordingly, the supervisors belonged to three classes: the first were the princes and nobles; the second were the court officials who volunteered to work; the third were the local chieftains and officials.

3.1.2. Labor

The government allowed mine owners to actively hire workers, which created conditions for court officials and local chieftains to participate in mining activities as private individuals. In addition, the government also allowed Chinese people to participate in mining. This explains why in some mines operated by Chinese merchants, most of the workers hired by them were also Chinese. The result of this policy was that tens of thousands of Chinese people participated in mining in Dang Ngoai, causing complicated consequences later on.

3.1.3. Tax policy

An agency under the Ministry of Finance, the Ho Phien, was in charge of financial revenue and tax management, including mining tax. Mining tax and other forest products tax were part of the royal court's specialized tax revenue. Accordingly, the royal court regulated the rent for each mine, depending on the reserves and exploitation productivity of the mines. To encourage mining activities, the Trinh lords implemented a policy of tax exemption for the first 5 years for new mines in operation. However, during this period, tax evasion by mine owners and supervisors still occurred frequently, causing losses to the state.

3.1.4. Mine size and type

In terms of scale, during the Le-Trinh period, the Chinese participated in mining in most of the mines in Dang Ngoai, including some mines that were annexed to the Qing Dynasty territory (such as Tu Long, Nguu Duong, Ho Diep, Pho Vien, Tung Lang, Hoang Nham, Hop Phi, Le Tuyen, Tuy Phu, Nghiem Chau)... According to statistics, the total number of mines is about seventy, distributed in the space of the northern highland towns but concentrated in Thai Nguyen, Hung Hoa and Tuyen Quang. In terms of types, among the most exploited metal mines are silver and copper.

3.1.5. Mining method

Mining methods in the mines in Dang Ngoai during this period were still manual. Accordingly, “ore was dug to the surface by workers using rudimentary tools; then it was washed and cooked in floating furnaces”. The mines managed by the Chinese operated on a similar model to that in Yunnan. Accordingly, each large production unit consisted of manyship(location) of exploitation, divided into manyinjectionwells), the assignee often subcontracts the wells to small operators.injectionThis facility employs from 50 to 200 workers, working in many groups, taking turns day and night, each group consisting of many teams undertaking different tasks such as separating ore, supporting tunnels, ventilating, using pumps to drain the construction site... After mining, there is ore crushing, washing, selection and many other processing stages. All are assigned on the basis of high specialization. This technical process does not depend only on a direct operator but is a link between the investor and the labor supplier.

3.1.6. Chinese mining activities at some mines

3.1.6.1. Tu Long

3.1.6.2. Song Tinh

3.1.6.3. Some other mines

3.2. Chinese mining under the Nguyen Dynasty in the 19th century

3.2.1. Management policy of Nguyen Dynasty

Under the Nguyen Dynasty, the Chinese were allowed to actively hire workers to mine. The Nguyen Dynasty also used the Chinese to develop bronze casting, steel smelting, gold refining, ceramics, etc. The management and supervision of mines was assigned to the Ministry of Finance by the court. Below was a system of mandarins in charge of local land management. In localities, when a mine was discovered, the leading mandarins had the responsibility to report to the court. The king would then issue a decree to consider the organization of mining. The openness of the Nguyen Dynasty in its mining management policy towards the Chinese created an attraction that promoted new waves of Chinese migration to Vietnam.

3.2.2.Labor

In the northern highlands as well as in the whole country, mining under the Nguyen Dynasty was divided into four forces, including mines commandeered by Chinese merchants and paid annual taxes. The Nguyen Dynasty used a significant human resource to serve mining in the northern highlands, including Chinese merchants and miners. Chinese workers had more experience and higher skills than Vietnamese. Mining was organized in stages, with high professionalism.

3.2.3. Scale, mine type

Under the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the 19th century, in the provinces of the northern highlands such as Tuyen Quang, Hung Hoa, Cao Bang, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Son Tay, there were 107 mines, accounting for about 85% of the total number of mines in the country at that time. In terms of mine types, compared to the Le - Trinh period in the late 18th century, the types of minerals exploited under the Nguyen Dynasty in the first half of the 19th century were more diverse. Under the Le - Trinh period, copper and silver mines were mainly exploited, but under the Nguyen Dynasty, the government allowed the exploitation of other types of mines such as saltpeter, vermillion, lead, sulfur, etc.

3.2.4.Rules and methods of exploitation

Under the Nguyen Dynasty, the court often sent officials or assigned responsibility to the heads of the towns and prefectures to examine and determine tax quotas for mines. To grasp the reserves of each mine, sometimes the government also let people exploit for a certain period of time to find out the output of each mine. In the early years of the 19th century, King Gia Long established a system of auctions to collect taxes from mines in the towns of the Northern Citadel. This was carried out annually, so the tax rate also changed according to the year. However, in later years when the government system was stable, especially after Minh Mang carried out administrative reforms, the Nguyen Dynasty issued certificates of requisition for a long period of time "with tax rates prescribed by the State". Therefore, Chinese merchants were granted licenses to requisition mines for a longer period of time, and were more proactive in exploiting and paying taxes. However, this favorable policy caused the Nguyen Dynasty to loosen supervision, creating opportunities for the Chinese to evade taxes and secretly bring minerals across the border, causing losses of Dai Nam's resources.

3.2.5. Tax policy

To strictly control Chinese mining activities, the Nguyen Dynasty set annual tax rates for each mine and organized tax collection as soon as the mines came into operation. King Minh Mang also stipulated that from 1832, every three years, local officials and the court had to inspect and re-evaluate the mines' situation in order to propose new tax rates.

Chapter 3 Summary

Although the Le-Trinh and Nguyen dynasties had enacted measures to limit the role of the Chinese in the mines in the upper region, due to the remote location and terrain of the commune, these policies only partially limited the situation of Chinese miners spreading throughout the upper region. Although they only directly acquired a small part of the mines to exploit, as subcontractors or as workers, the Chinese still sought to profit from the available knowledge of the mining system in the upper region of northern Vietnam. By maintaining large-scale mining activities that took place continuously for nearly two centuries (late 19th century to the first half of the 20th century), miners (including local chieftains, Chinese chieftains and laborers as well as indigenous communities) created a fundamental change in the socio-economic situation of the northern highlands of Vietnam with the formation of densely populated, multi-ethnic residential centers that became places of economic and cultural exchange. Mining activities also brought in a significant source of revenue contributing to the country's financial budget and contributed to the formation of early capitalist economic seeds in the northern mountainous provinces of Vietnam. By the 19th century, although the Nguyen Dynasty strictly prohibited the transportation of minerals out of the border, these laws only limited open transportation and were completely incapable of preventing the flow of metals out of the border by clandestine and smuggling routes.

Chapter 4

FRENCH MINING IN NORTH

(1884-1919)

4. 1. The process of establishing French mining operations in Vietnam (1858-1897)

4.1.1. The French mining exploration process in Tonkin

The French conquest and colonization of Vietnam was a process that took place from the end of the 16th century, initiated by Catholic missionaries and merchants. Research results have shown that these mines have the potential to generate high profits. When the French established colonial rule here, the French paid special attention to the exploration, investigation, and statistics of mines. The investigation, research, and statistics of French mines in Indochina in general, and in Bac Ky in particular, took place continuously and lasted from the end of the 19th century until the 1930s of the 20th century. The process of exploration and search for resources in Indochina in general, and in Bac Ky in particular, although carried out from the early 1970s, was basically accelerated after the signing of the Harmand and Patenotre treaties.

4.1.2. Mine occupation policies.

After conducting exploration and implementing policies on mine appropriation in Vietnam, the French issued many legal documents to strictly manage this activity throughout Indochina as well as specific to each region. After canceling the contracts signed between the Hue court and Bavaria Chauffour on the 100-year sale of the Ke Bao and Hon Gac coal mines in 1884 and directly signing other documents with the mine owners, the French forced the Nguyen dynasty to sign a Mining Convention with France on February 18, 1885, confirming the initial transfer of mine management rights in North and Central Vietnam from the Hue court to the colonial government. This convention was also a document that paved the way for France to establish a mining regime in Indochina from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, just as France had done in all other colonies. According to statistics, from 1888 to 1945, there were more than 90 documents related to mine management in Indochina and other countries.

4.1.3. Establishment of specialized agencies on mines

In order to promote mining activities in Indochina, the French implemented many administrative, financial and legal measures. In terms of administration, the French advocated the establishment of a specialized mining agency with the task of assisting the colonial government in formulating mining regulations, conducting exploration, granting concessions and managing mining operations. The mining agency and the departments supporting its activities played an important role in the development of the mining industry in Indochina.

4.2. French mining activities in Tonkin (1897-1919)

4.2.1. Mining in the First French Colonial Exploitation Program

In the early 20th century, the demand for raw materials (rubber) or fuel (coal) in France increased to serve the industrialization process. Rubber and coal were also highly profitable industries for the French, and the French could exploit these resources right in the colonial Indochina. These were the basic reasons why the French carried out the first large-scale colonial exploitation (1897-1914) in Indochina, in which the mining industry occupied the most important position in this colonial exploitation. On March 22, 1897, the Governor-General of Indochina proposed an "action program", presented in a letter to the French Minister of Colonies dated March 22, 1897, with 7 points. This was also the core of the first colonial exploitation initiated by Paul Doumer.

4.2.2. Coal mining

During this period, the coal output of Bac Ky accounted for about three-quarters of the annual coal mining output of Indochina. Although coal had been mined before under the Nguyen Dynasty with the participation of the Chinese, the difference in advanced science and technology levels combined with the modern management methods of the French created a turning point for the coal mining industry in Bac Ky. The Bac Ky coal mining industry tended to develop gradually in the first few decades, starting from the end of the 19th century. In the mining industry, coal became a source of high output, bringing significant export value. For example, at Ke Bao coal mine, the output in 1906 increased nearly 3 times compared to 1903, of which consumption increased 3 times. On the Indochina scale, from mid-1913 to 1928, coal output increased 4 times; from mid-1900 to 1929, coal output increased 9 times in value.

4.2.3. Mining of metal mines

During the period from the late 19th century to the 1920s, metal mining activities were mainly concentrated in Tonkin. Metal mining activities began in 1904 when tin and tungsten ores were rediscovered in the Pia Oac Mountains in Tonkin. During the period between the two World Wars, mining products ranked fourth in Indochina's exports, accounting for 4 to 8% of the total export value of Indochina.

4.2.4. Capital investment and technology situation

When the French carried out the first colonial exploitation in Indochina, the development of the mining industry in Indochina grew faster than the general development of the country's economy. During the period 1888-1919, most of the coal was mined manually, mainly by human power. Mechanization of the mining industry only became popular after the early 20s of the 20th century. In mines, the roofs were usually made of wood, later steel struts supporting the pits became more popular in some mines.

4.2.5. Labor situation

The mining industry in Indochina employed about 0.5% of the country's labor force. At the beginning of the 20th century, the mines in Indochina employed 270 European skilled technicians and managers, and 49,200 Asians. About three-quarters of these were employed in the coal industry. By regulation, the maximum proportion of foreigners, including French, that could be employed was 10% of the total workforce in the coal industry and 5% in all other mines. The Chinese were initially the most employed in the mines because they were stronger, more experienced, and more skilled. However, in later years, the Vietnamese replaced the Chinese (by the 1930s, Vietnamese workers accounted for 90% of the workforce in the mines).

4.2.6. Coal and metal consumption situation

With the colonial government's policy of increasing the export content of goods, the entire output of metal minerals mined in Indochina was exported. Until 1914, tin ore from Indochina was exported to Singapore, while zinc ore was exported to Europe with Germany as the main import partner. During World War I, when the European market was blockaded, metal ores from Indochina sought to be consumed in the Far East market because at this time Japanese industry was increasing its import of raw materials and fuels, including metal ores from Indochina, to serve its development needs.

Chapter 4 Summary

Although they were behind the Chinese in exploiting and profiting from Vietnam's resources, as a leading colonial empire in Europe and the world, and possessing a developed industry with a high level of science and technology, the French gradually penetrated, invaded, pacified and imposed colonial rule on Vietnam. The French gradually explored, occupied and promoted mining activities in Bac Ky, one of the economic pillars in the colonial exploitation in Indochina.

Unlike the Le-Trinh or Nguyen dynasties when they allowed foreign merchants (Chinese) to participate in mining, the French implemented a policy of exclusive ownership and mining for the French. The colonial government also implemented administrative measures to create favorable conditions in terms of policies, finance, and taxes in a way that was beneficial to mine owners. Also different from the previous weak management policies of the feudal governments of Vietnam, the French focused on investing in and managing the mining industry in a superior modern way (management by maps, landmarks, regulations on mining conditions, ownership periods, equipment in the direction of mechanization, application of modern mining technology in mining and processing of ores, etc.). This is the difference, and also two outstanding characteristics of the mining industry during the French colonial period compared to the Vietnamese mining industry during the feudal period.

Chapter 5

COMMENTS ON FOREIGN MINING ACTIVITIES IN VIETNAM

5.1. Chinese domination of mining activities in Dang Ngoai

The development of mining activities, with the participation of the Chinese, in the upper region of northern Vietnam became a factor promoting the development of currency and commodity economy, promoting cross-border trade relations between Dang Ngoai and Southern China, contributing to the vitality of new economic centers in the cities of Dang Ngoai, as well as in the mineral mines in the upper region of northern Vietnam.

5.2. Encourage the French to step up their colonization and economic exploitation in Bac Ky

The huge profits from the mining industry - in addition to the processing industry and plantations - were one of the important driving forces that pushed the colonial government and French capitalists to carry out the colonization and economic exploitation in Bac Ky in particular. The initial results obtained from this policy created the basic foundations, creating an important premise for two large-scale colonial exploitations by French colonialists in Indochina.

5.3. Causes loss of resources

As people who possessed more advanced mining technology in terms of experience, techniques and methods of exploitation, Chinese merchants and laborers played an increasingly important role in the handicraft mining industry in the upper region of Northern Vietnam. However, these advantages of the Chinese contributed almost nothing to the economy of Dai Viet and even caused a loss of resources of this country.

5.4. Causing waves of migration

In the Southeast Asian region, along with Burma, Vietnam is a country close to China both geographically and culturally, and is therefore also a country heavily influenced by Chinese civilization. The boom in mining activities in northern Vietnam has led to uncontrollable waves of Chinese immigration in the border areas, potentially causing and erupting many factors that cause social instability such as social evils, robbery, banditry, etc.

5.5. Impacts on China

The mining activities of the Chinese and French in Northern Vietnam from the late 17th century to the early 20th century had direct and multifaceted impacts not only on Vietnamese society but also caused a number of direct and indirect effects on both China and France.

5.6. Impacts on France

Besides the impact on the political situation in the South China region, mining activities in Northern Vietnam also had significant impacts on the political, economic and social situation of the French in the Indochina colony.

Chapter 5 Summary

Foreign mining activities in the upper regions of Northern Vietnam from the late 17th century to the early 20th century had many impacts on life, not only causing instability in Vietnamese society but also affecting the Southern China region or even the political calculations of the French authorities.

With favorable geographical location, the development of cross-border economic exchange activities in the socio-economic context of Dang Ngoai from the mid-17th century combined with favorable factors in management policies of Vietnamese feudal dynasties promoted the emergence and formation of large-scale mining activities of the Chinese in Northern Vietnam during this time. In addition, with advantages in experience, mining techniques and capital, the Chinese came to dominate many mining sites in the upper region of Dang Ngoai. This situation lasted for a long time, leading to waves of migration from Southern China to Dang Ngoai. That not only made it difficult for the Le - Trinh government to control the situation in the upper region of the North but also caused losses of mineral resources that the Chinese secretly brought across the border.

The French's promotion of colonial exploitation and economic exploitation in Indochina, including the exploitation of mineral mines in Bac Ky, not only caused many political changes in Vietnamese society, disrupted economic and social structures, but also led to partial industrialization of production activities, increased currency exchange, and the application of scientific and technical achievements to production activities and production methods.

Thus, it can be said that, in economic terms, mining in Northern Vietnam was one of the important sources of supply to compensate for the shortage of copper and silver in China in the 17th and 18th centuries as well as to meet part of the coal and metal supply in France after the Franco-Prussian War in the 19th century. In political terms, mining activities in Northern Vietnam were also an important link contributing to the socio-economic stability in Southern China as well as to the prosperity of the colonial economy established by the French in Indochina.

CONCLUDE

1. Research on foreign mining activities in the upper region of Northern Vietnam from the late 17th century to the early 20th century has shown the potential, position and attraction of one of the areas that was heavily affected by the expansion of influence to the South of the Chinese empire as well as being known as one of the richest countries in the colonial system of French colonialism.

This is both a special economic space of the country with rich forest resources and a strategic area in terms of politics, economy and military.

For about three centuries, from the late 17th century to the early 20th century, the northern highlands of Vietnam were an important part not only of Vietnam but also the border area between Vietnam and China. The richness and diversity of geographical location, geology and soil have made the northern highlands of Vietnam a source of abundant forest resources, maintaining the survival and development of the communities living here for many centuries. Geographical and geographical descriptions of this area show that this is a dense space, rich in natural forest resources, including mineral mines with diverse types and abundant output. With the strong attraction from this abundant mineral resource, along with the opening and development of the industrial and commercial economy in Dang Ngoai in the 17th - 18th centuries, Northern Vietnam had the role and position as a resource, a locomotive to promote foreign powers to strongly participate in mining activities in the upper region of Northern Vietnam under the Le - Trinh period (late 17th - 18th centuries), Nguyen period (first half of the 19th century) and under French colonialism (late 19th - early 20th centuries).

Favorable conditions in terms of geographical location and socio-economic space from the end of the 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century created favorable premises for the development of foreign mining activities in the upper reaches of northern Vietnam. In addition, the infiltration of Chinese people from across the border stemmed from population growth, the need to seek resources outside of Chinese territory as well as after major political events in China and the formation of Chinese communities in Vietnam as a relatively stable population entity in the Vietnamese social structure starting from the 17th century combined with favorable factors in Vietnamese policies, which are explained as the basis for the emergence and formation of large-scale mining activities by Chinese people in the upper reaches of Dang Ngoai.

2. Through the reconstruction and reconstruction of a panoramic picture of a specific economic sector of Vietnamese society over the past three centuries, it has shown that the outstanding characteristics of foreign miners compared to Vietnamese miners are their extensive experience, advantages in mining techniques, mine management and human resource management. It can be seen that with the emergence of large-scale mines requiring large investment capital, there have appeared merchants who own some capital, take charge and hire workers to exploit large mines. This is in contrast to Vietnamese miners, although increasingly appearing in large numbers, they are still attached and bound to the land, to the seasons, and to their homeland.

That explains why for three centuries, Chinese merchants and miners or French capitalists and mine owners were the forces that played an important role in the mining economy of Vietnam at that time. Private Vietnamese mining establishments could not compete with large-scale foreign mines. As merchants and contractors, these forces always generated profits from their experience and extensive knowledge of the mining systems in the upper regions of Northern Vietnam.

3. By maintaining large-scale mining activities continuously for nearly three centuries, those participating in mining economic activities in Northern Vietnam have created a fundamental change in the socio-economic situation of the northern highlands of Vietnam, with the formation of densely populated residential centers with diverse ethnic groups, becoming important economic and cultural exchange locations, laying the foundation for the formation of later economic cities in northern Vietnam such as Cao Bang, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, etc.

The development of mining activities in northern Vietnam has been taking place on a large scale for a long time, besides the negative impacts on the host country in general, on the indigenous region in particular, it has also become a strong driving force to promote trade activities, the explosion of cross-border, cross-regional, cross-regional trade relations between Vietnam and South China, between Vietnam and Japan, Southeast Asia and Western countries. It also simultaneously creates rapid changes in the economic, cultural and social face of this region with both instability and changes in political security and social order and safety of the country.

4. The awareness of protecting sovereignty and resources as well as the attitudes and management policies of the Vietnamese monarchies in different periods were not unified and did not bring about effectiveness. Although the Vietnamese feudal governments were very aware of the issue of protecting sovereignty and ensuring border security (such as the issue of the Tu Long copper mine during the Le - Trinh period in the early 18th century), they still showed subjectivity and negligence. From there, they proposed management policies that were not really certain and effective in protecting sovereignty and protecting the country's resources.

If in the 17th and 18th centuries, the indirect management policy, through supervisors or local officials of the Le - Trinh government towards mining activities in the upper region of Northern Vietnam, in form seemed to be really effective, it did not bring much revenue to the state but only brought direct benefits to the heads of the localities assigned by the state to manage, foreign merchants and miners.

Although some measures were issued to limit the role of the Chinese in mining activities, the results were not as expected and could not prevent their advantage in the competition for a share of the rich mineral mines. The situation of local officials cheating, evading taxes or accepting bribes from mine owners made the royal court's policy of managing mineral resources really ineffective. Although the Vietnamese state administration system does not allow the transportation and consumption of minerals out of the border, these laws only limit public transportation and are completely incapable of preventing the flow of minerals out of the border through unofficial channels. From changes in state management policies, fluctuations in political and social life, foreign powers and their mining activities are an undeniable entity, which have existed and taken place in the upper region of northern Vietnam throughout the turbulent three centuries.

5. Foreign mining activities have affected most aspects of political, economic, cultural and social life in the upper region of Northern Vietnam.

In terms of politics, the mining activities of the Chinese in the northern highlands of Vietnam also had significant impacts on the political and social life in the country, directly or indirectly causing instability to Vietnamese society in general and the northern highlands in particular. It not only caused direct and multifaceted impacts on Vietnamese society but also created a number of direct and indirect impacts on both China and France. However, ignoring the negative factors mentioned above, it can be said that the mining activities of the Chinese and French in this area were an important link contributing to the economic and social stability in southern China as well as to the prosperity of the colonial economy that the French established in Indochina.

Economically, the mining activities of the Chinese in the upper regions of Northern Vietnam from the end of the 17th century to the first half of the 19th century, besides being a source of tax for Dai Viet, resulted in a very serious loss of resources. However, the strong mining activities in the border areas also contributed to the creation of residential and commodity exchange centers, promoting the upper regions of Dang Ngoai to participate in the commodity exchange system in the border area between northern Dai Viet and southern China as well as the trade system between Dai Viet and China and countries in the East Asia region. At this time, China became an unofficial consumer market for Dai Viet's minerals. Meanwhile, the mining activities of the French in Tonkin from the second half of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century made Vietnam initially participate and become a part of the world trade system when connecting with the economy of the French motherland and the French colonial system. Mining products such as coal and zinc became exports to Europe as well as other countries and regions.

Socially, the contact and exchange between Vietnamese culture and Chinese civilization as well as Western civilization took place in a process, sometimes up and sometimes down, and took place strongly in the first decades of the 20th century when Vietnamese society was also under the same yoke of Western colonialism as some other Eastern countries. That contact and exchange of culture was both forced and imposed, and also voluntary, accepting the essence of civilizations with higher levels of development with different attitudes. Vietnam transformed from a feudal monarchy to a protectorate and colonial regime. Along with the introduction of Western civilization, new labor forces emerged on the basis of miners. This force later became a new class, with interests opposing the interests of feudal landlords and capitalists.

Finally, the participation of foreigners in the highlands of Northern Vietnam contributed to the migration of tens of thousands of Chinese miners and merchants. This situation promoted the process of cultural contact and exchange through marriage or labor relationships. The result of this process created ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious diversity in a space with many fluctuations in an area whose boundaries were sometimes only relatively defined and were also subject to the control of the political regimes of that time. On the other hand, the migration situation as a process of exchange between the communities on both sides of the border was a reality that local authorities could not easily find solutions to effectively manage.

LIST OF AUTHOR'S SCIENTIFIC WORKS RELATED TO THE THESIS

1. Tran Xuan Thanh (2015), “Mining activities of the Chinese in the upper regions of Northern Vietnam under the Le - Trinh dynasty (17th - 18th centuries)”,Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, (181), pp. 63-70.

2. Tran Xuan Thanh (2015), “Mining activities of Chinese people in the upper region of Northern Vietnam,Journal of Chinese Studies,(163) pp. 56-66.

3. Tran Xuan Thanh (2015), “Chinese people and mining in Northern Vietnam, Le - Trinh period (17th - 18th century)”,Past and Present Magazine, (458), pp. 36-40.

4. Tran Xuan Thanh (2019), “Mining situation in Central Vietnam in the 19th century (through some historical documents)”,Central Journal of Social Sciences, (57), pp. 67- 76.

5. Tran Xuan Thanh (2020), “The emergence of Chinese mining activities and some impacts on Dai Viet society in the 17th - 19th centuries”,Journal of Social Science Information,(450).