Abstract of PhD Thesis by Tran Xuan Thanh

 

INTRODUCTION

1. Reasons for choosing the topic

Mining is one of the important economic activities with a long history in Vietnam and around the world. In Vietnam, during the Le-Trinh period (17th-18th centuries) and the early Nguyen dynasty (first half of the 19th century), when mining became an activity attracting many merchants and laborers, the Chinese, with their advantages in capital, experience, and technology, became the dominant force in mining activities in the upper regions of Northern Vietnam. By the second half of the 19th century, after completing the conquest of Indochina, the French colonialists carried out large-scale exploitation of the country. The mineral mines in Northern Vietnam not only became a place for investment, expansion, and the establishment of infrastructure serving the exploitation, transportation, and export of resources, but also contributed to Vietnam's integration into the global economy through participation in regional trade systems as well as the systems of other colonies. Furthermore, mining in Tonkin in particular, and in Indochina in general, contributed to reviving the economic and political standing of the French colonialists.

Research on mining activities by foreigners in Northern Vietnam will provide a systematic and comprehensive perspective on the emergence and establishment of mining activities by the Chinese in the highlands of Northern Vietnam (from the 17th century to the first half of the 18th century) as well as by French capitalists in Tonkin (from the late 19th century to the early 20th century).

Research on the topicForeign mining activities in northern Vietnam from the late 17th to the early 20th century.It also contributes to explaining the similarities and differences in the management policies of Vietnamese governments regarding foreign mining activities; analyzing and evaluating the impacts of mining activities on Vietnamese society, as well as the reciprocal effects on Southern China and on France's position in the capitalist world.

2. Research Objectives and Tasks

The basic objective of this thesis is to reconstruct and analyze the socio-economic landscape, explain the emergence of foreign mining activities in Northern Vietnam; analyze and interpret the similarities and differences in the management policies of Vietnamese governments and the impact of these activities on Vietnam and some other countries in the regional and global context from the late 17th to the early 20th century.

3. Research subjects and scope

3.1. Research Subjects

The primary subject of this dissertation is the relationship between the context of countries and regions in East Asia and the world with the mining activities of foreigners in Northern Vietnam from the late 17th to the early 20th centuries.

3.2. Scope of the study             

In terms of space: East Asia, with the northern highlands of Vietnam as its center. In terms of time: the late 17th century to 1919.

4. Research Methodology

The dissertation utilizes the fundamental principles of Marxist historiography methodology, with the historical and logical methods being the primary approaches. Systematic, analytical, and comparative methods are also employed in the dissertation.

5. Sources of information

Firstly, there are historical documents, geographical records, and some Chinese historical works that have been translated and edited into Vietnamese. Secondly, there are records by Western missionaries, explorers, travelers, and merchants about Tonkin during the pre-colonial period, a time of strong development in diplomatic, commercial, and religious relations between Western countries and Tonkin (Dai Viet).,This is expressed in the form of memoirs, diaries, etc. Thirdly, archival documents, press documents, and reports from the French colonial period are particularly important sources for the topic, providing data on mineral potential, the process of exploration, search, exploitation, processing, and consumption of minerals by the French colonialists in Tonkin and Indochina. These also include decrees, regulations, other administrative documents on mines, and specialized books. Fourthly, there are research works both domestically and internationally; books, newspapers, magazines, theses, and dissertations related to the research topic...

6. Contributions of the thesis

This study contributes to a systematic and comprehensive research on the emergence and dominance of mining activities by the Chinese and French in Northern Vietnam within the national and regional context of history from the late 17th to the early 20th centuries; it analyzes and interprets the consequences of management policies by Vietnamese governments on the mining activities of foreign powers and their impact on Vietnamese society and several other countries during different historical periods.

7. Thesis Structure

Besides the introduction, conclusion, bibliography, and appendices, the thesis consists of 5 chapters:

Chapter 1: Overview of the Research Situation on the Problem

Chapter 2: Prerequisites and Factors Leading to Foreign Mining Activities in Vietnam

Chapter 3: Chinese Mining from the Late 17th to the First Half of the 19th Century

Chapter 4: French Mining in Tonkin (1884-1919)

Chapter 5: Some observations on mining activities by foreigners in Vietnam.

Chapter 1

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH SITUATION ON THE PROBLEM

1.1. Studies on mineral resources and mining potential in Vietnam

First, there are records and descriptions of the economic and social situation in Dai Viet in general and Dang Ngoai in particular during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following that are the most detailed and specific reports and records serving the French administration in Indochina and the motherland. These include memoirs, notes, and research by politicians, economists, and mining engineers sent to Indochina by the French government. There are also memoirs, geographical accounts, local histories, and research works by politicians, merchants, engineers, and scientists.

1.2. Studies on mining in Vietnam from the late 17th to early 20th centuries

In recent years, along with the trend of research on the commercial activities of foreign traders and their impact on countries in the East Asian region, there have also been some studies on the mining sector and mining activities involving foreigners - especially Chinese and French people in Vietnam.

1.3. Results and Issues to be Addressed

While studies by scholars both domestically and internationally have addressed mining activities in Vietnam, they have only focused on specific aspects, political systems, historical periods, and different regions and localities. They have not yet pursued comprehensive and continuous research on foreign mining activities in Northern Vietnam throughout the entire historical period from the late 17th to the early 20th century. These are limitations that subsequent research must overcome and address.

Chapter 2

PREMISES AND FACTORS LEADING TO FOREIGN MINING ACTIVITIES IN VIETNAM

2.1. Geographical zoning and mineral resources in northern Vietnam

The highlands of northern Vietnam are not only a transitional zone between northern Vietnam and southern China, but also a gateway to important maritime trade routes through a system of river and sea estuaries leading to the Gulf of Tonkin – one of the key gateways and trading centers in the international trade system. In addition, abundant mineral resources have made this region an economic driving force, providing crucial resources for the survival and development of local communities over the centuries.

2.2. The emergence and development of mining in the world and in Vietnam

Globally, mining, although a long-standing activity, only experienced explosive growth when the demand for coal and steel (used as fuel for steam engines) surged during the Industrial Revolutions in Western Europe (late 18th and early 19th centuries). Subsequently, the demand for non-ferrous metals and fossil fuels (used as fuel for internal combustion engines) during the Second Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America from the mid-19th century onwards further fueled the widespread development of mining across Western colonial territories. Furthermore, the development of trade, railways, electricity, and the world wars further intensified the demand for non-renewable resources. The mining sector in Vietnam was also caught in the whirlwind of economic and political changes both globally and regionally.

2.3. Socio-economic development policies of Vietnamese governments in the regional context of the 17th-18th centuries

The development of a commodity economy in Dai Viet and the search for markets by Western capitalist countries strongly promoted commercial and handicraft activities in Dang Ngoai (Northern Vietnam). The Le-Trinh government implemented several policies to develop the socio-economic sector, including the management of mining activities in the mountainous regions of Dang Ngoai. This policy not only facilitated domestic merchants but also allowed Chinese merchants to invest capital in and lease mineral resources in the area.

2.4. The mining needs of the Chinese in Dai Viet

The increased demand for precious metals, driven by China's population boom and growing trade with the West, as well as the need to find new resources, was one of the key factors that propelled miners and traders southward into regions of China such as Guangxi, Yunnan, and northern Vietnam.

2.5. Nmining demandPeopleFranceliveNorthern Vietnam

During the early 19th-century Industrial Revolution in France, metallurgy was a pillar and foundation for industrialization and modernization. Furthermore, shortages of coal and metals following the Franco-Prussian War, as well as competition with Britain and other European nations, prompted the French government to undertake large-scale resource exploitation in Indochina and other colonies within its colonial system. On the other hand, mining in Tonkin allowed the colonial administration in Indochina to achieve its objective: minimal investment but maximum profit. Mining in Tonkin also created a buffer zone for the French to conduct trade with potentially lucrative markets in southern China, connecting Yunnan, Guangdong, and Guangxi with regional trade networks such as Saigon, Hong Kong, Japan, the Philippines, and Singapore.

Chapter 2 Summary

With its advantageous geographical location, abundant mineral resources, and the open political and economic environment of the Le-Trinh period, Chinese communities were strongly attracted to cross the border and engage in mining activities in Northern Vietnam during the 17th and 18th centuries. In addition, the massive immigration of Chinese following the anti-Qing, pro-Ming restoration movement and the formation of large, stable Chinese communities within Vietnamese society from the 18th to 19th centuries, combined with favorable policies of the Nguyen lords and early Nguyen emperors, are considered the basis for the emergence of Chinese mining activities in Northern Vietnam in the first half of the 19th century. The 18th and 19th centuries were also a period when Western colonial powers sought to invade and expand their colonies in the Far East to find rich resources to compensate for resource shortages in their home countries. France's interest in the resources and cheap labor in Indochina was realized through the pacification and invasion of Indochina, including Tonkin, establishing colonial rule and carrying out large-scale colonial exploitation there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Chapter 3

MINING BY THE CHINESE FROM THE LATE 17TH CENTURY TO THE FIRST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

3.1. Mining by the Chinese in Northern Vietnam during the Le-Trinh period

3.1.1.Management policyThe Lê-Trịnh government's policy regarding the mining activities of the Chinese in Northern Vietnam.

The Lê-Trịnh government began implementing a strict policy of managing mines from extraction and transportation to trading by monopolizing mining operations. This policy was implemented starting in 1760 with a supervisory system. Accordingly, the supervisors belonged to three classes: firstly, princes and nobles; secondly, court officials who voluntarily volunteered; and thirdly, local chieftains and officials.

3.1.2. Labor

The government allowed mine owners to independently hire laborers, which facilitated the private participation of court officials and local chieftains in mining operations. Furthermore, the government permitted Chinese immigrants to participate in mining. This explains why, in some mines operated by Chinese merchants, the majority of their laborers were also Chinese. As a result of this policy, tens of thousands of Chinese immigrants were involved in mining in Northern Vietnam, leading to complex consequences later on.

3.1.3. Tax Policy

An agency under the Ministry of Finance, the Tax Office, was responsible for financial revenue and expenditure and tax management, including mining taxes. Mining taxes and taxes on other forest and agricultural products were part of the imperial court's exclusive tax revenue. Accordingly, the court stipulated the tax rate for each mine, depending on the reserves and extraction productivity. To encourage mining activities, the Trinh lords implemented a policy of exempting newly operational mines from taxes for the first five years. However, during this period, tax evasion by mine owners and supervising officials was still frequent, causing losses to the state.

3.1.4. Scale and types of mines

In terms of scale, during the Le-Trinh period, the Chinese participated in mining in most of the mines in Dang Ngoai (Northern Vietnam), including some mines that were later incorporated into Qing Dynasty territory (such as Tu Long, Nguu Duong, Ho Diep, Pho Vien, Tung Lang, Hoang Nham, Hop Phi, Le Tuyen, Tuy Phu, Nghiem Chau)... The total number of mines, according to statistics, is around seventy, distributed in the northern highland provinces but concentrated mainly in Thai Nguyen, Hung Hoa, and Tuyen Quang. In terms of types, among the most exploited metals were silver and copper.

3.1.5. Exploitation methods

Mining methods in the mines of Tonkin during this period were still largely manual. Accordingly, "mine ore was dug up to the surface by workers using rudimentary tools; then it was sifted and smelted in floating furnaces." Mining operations managed by the Chinese followed a similar model to that in Yunnan. Each large production unit consisted of manyship(mining) site, divided into many smaller parts.injection(wells), the transferee usually subcontracts the wells to smaller operators.injectionThis facility employs between fifty and two hundred workers, organized into numerous groups working day and night. Each group comprises several teams responsible for different tasks such as ore separation, tunnel support, ventilation, and using pumps to drain the mining area. After extraction, the ore is crushed, washed, sorted, and undergoes various other processing stages. All tasks are assigned based on a high degree of specialization. This technical process does not depend solely on a single direct operator but is a collaboration between the capital investor and the labor provider.

3.1.6. Chinese mining activities at some mines

3.1.6.1. Gathering of Dragons

3.1.6.2. Tong Tinh

3.1.6.3. Other mines

3.2. Mining by the Chinese under the Nguyen Dynasty in the 19th century

3.2.1. Management policies of the Nguyen Dynasty

Under the Nguyen dynasty, the Chinese were allowed to independently hire laborers for mining. The Nguyen also utilized the Chinese to develop trades such as bronze casting, steelmaking, gold refining, and pottery. The management and supervision of the mines were entrusted to the Ministry of Finance. Below them was a system of officials responsible for local land management. In each locality, upon discovering a mine, the local officials were responsible for reporting it to the court. The king would then issue a decree to consider organizing mining operations. The Nguyen dynasty's openness in managing mining activities for the Chinese created an attraction that fueled new waves of Chinese migration to Vietnam.

3.2.2.Labor

Throughout the northern highlands and the entire country, mining under the Nguyen dynasty was divided into four sectors, including mines leased and taxed annually by Chinese merchants. The Nguyen dynasty utilized a significant workforce for mining in the northern highlands, including Chinese merchants and miners. Chinese laborers possessed superior experience and technical skills compared to Vietnamese workers. Mining operations were organized in stages, demonstrating a high degree of professionalism.

3.2.3. Scale, type of mine

During the first half of the 19th century, under the Nguyen dynasty, there were 107 mines in the northern mountainous provinces such as Tuyen Quang, Hung Hoa, Cao Bang, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, and Son Tay, accounting for approximately 85% of the total number of mines nationwide at that time. In terms of types of mines, compared to the Le-Trinh period of the late 18th century, the types of minerals exploited under the Nguyen dynasty in the first half of the 19th century were more diverse. While the Le-Trinh period mainly focused on copper and silver mines, the Nguyen government allowed the exploitation of other minerals such as saltpeter, cinnabar, lead, and sulfur.

3.2.4.Rules and methods of exploitation

Under the Nguyen dynasty, the court often appointed officials or assigned responsibility to the heads of provincial and prefectural governments to examine and determine the tax rates for mines. To ascertain the reserves of each mine, the government sometimes even allowed people to conduct trial mining for a certain period to understand the output of each mine. In the early 19th century, Emperor Gia Long established an auction system to collect taxes from mines in the northern provinces, a practice that was conducted annually, so the tax rates varied each year. However, in later years, when the government system had stabilized, especially after Emperor Minh Menh carried out administrative reforms, the Nguyen dynasty granted permits to collect taxes for extended periods "with tax rates determined by the State." Chinese merchants were therefore granted permits to collect taxes for longer periods, becoming more proactive in mining operations and tax payments. However, this favorable policy led the Nguyen dynasty to relax its supervision, creating opportunities for the Chinese to evade taxes and secretly smuggle minerals across the border, causing significant resource losses for Dai Nam.

3.2.5. Tax Policy

To tightly control the mining activities of the Chinese, the Nguyen dynasty set annual tax rates for each mine and organized tax collection as soon as the mines began operations. King Minh Mang also stipulated that, starting in 1832, every three years local and court officials had to inspect and reassess the situation of the mines in order to determine new tax rates.

Summary of Chapter 3

Although the Le-Trinh and Nguyen dynasties implemented measures to restrict the role of the Chinese in the mines of the highlands, the remote and rugged terrain meant these policies only partially limited the proliferation of Chinese miners throughout the region. Despite directly controlling only a small portion of the mines, the Chinese, as contractors or laborers, still profited from their existing knowledge of the mining systems in the northern highlands of Vietnam. By maintaining large-scale mining operations continuously for nearly two centuries (late 19th to the first half of the 20th century), the miners (including local chieftains, Chinese laborers and collaborators, as well as indigenous communities) brought about a fundamental transformation in the socio-economic landscape of the northern highlands of Vietnam, leading to the formation of densely populated, multi-ethnic centers that became hubs of economic and cultural exchange. Mining activities also generated a significant source of revenue contributing to the country's financial budget and helped to form the early seeds of capitalist economy in the northern mountainous provinces of Vietnam. By the 19th century, although the Nguyen dynasty strictly prohibited the transport of minerals across the border, these laws only restricted overt transportation and were completely ineffective in preventing the flow of metals across the border through clandestine smuggling routes.

Chapter 4

FRENCH MINING IN NORTHERN VIETNAM

(1884-1919)

4.1. The process of establishing French mining operations in Vietnam (1858-1897)

4.1.1The French mining exploration process in Tonkin (Northern Vietnam).

The French conquest and colonization of Vietnam began in the late 16th century, initiated by Catholic missionaries and merchants. Research has shown that these mines have high profit potential. When the French established colonial rule, they paid particular attention to the exploration, investigation, and statistical recording of these mines. French mining research and statistical work in Indochina in general, and in Tonkin in particular, continued uninterrupted from the late 19th century until the 1830s. While exploration and search for resources in Indochina and Tonkin began in the early 1870s, it was significantly intensified after the signing of the Harmand Treaty and the Patenotre Treaty.

4.1.2. Mine Acquisition Policies.

After conducting exploration and implementing policies to seize mines in Vietnam, the French issued numerous legal documents to tightly control these activities throughout Indochina, as well as specific to each region. Following the cancellation of the contracts signed between the Hue court and Bavier Chauffour regarding the 100-year sale of the Ke Bao and Hon Gac coal mines in 1884, and directly signing other documents with the mine owner, the French forced the Nguyen dynasty to sign a Mining Convention with France on February 18, 1885. This convention confirmed the initial transfer of mining control in Northern and Central Vietnam from the Hue court to the colonial government. This convention also paved the way for France to establish a mining regime in Indochina from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, similar to what France had done in all its other colonies. According to statistics, from 1888 to 1945, there were more than 90 documents related to mine management in Indochina and other territories.

4.1.3. Establishing specialized agencies for mining

To promote mining activities in Indochina, the French implemented numerous administrative, financial, and legal measures. Administratively, the French advocated for the establishment of a specialized mining agency tasked with assisting the colonial government in formulating mining regulations, conducting exploration, granting licenses, and managing mining operations. This mining management agency and its supporting departments played a crucial role in the development of the mining industry in Indochina.

4.2. French mining activities in Tonkin (1897-1919)

4.2.1. Mining in the First French Colonial Exploitation Program

At the beginning of the 20th century, France's demand for raw materials (rubber) and fuel (coal) increased significantly to support its industrialization efforts. Rubber and coal were also highly profitable industries for the French, and they could exploit these resources within their colonial Indochina. These were the fundamental reasons why the French launched the first large-scale colonial exploitation campaign (1897-1914) in Indochina, with the mining industry playing a paramount role. On March 22, 1897, the Governor-General of Indochina issued a "program of action," presented in a letter to the French Minister of Colonies dated March 22, 1897, containing seven points. This was the core of the first colonial exploitation campaign, initiated by Paul Doumer.

4.2.2. Coal mining

During this period, coal production in Tonkin accounted for approximately three-quarters of Indochina's annual coal output. Although coal had been mined previously under the Nguyen dynasty with the participation of the Chinese, the difference in advanced scientific and technical knowledge, coupled with the modern management methods of the French, created a turning point for the coal mining industry in Tonkin. The coal mining industry in Tonkin tended to develop steadily in the first few decades, starting from the end of the 19th century. Among mining industries, coal became a high-yield commodity, bringing significant export value. For example, the Ke Bao coal mine's output in 1906 nearly tripled compared to 1903, while consumption also tripled. On an Indochina scale, between 1913 and 1928, coal production increased fourfold; between 1900 and 1929, coal production increased ninefold in value.

4.2.3. Exploitation of metal mines

During the period from the late 19th century to the 1920s, metal mining activities were mainly concentrated in Tonkin (Northern Vietnam). Mining activities began in 1904 when tin and tungsten ores were rediscovered in the Pia Oac mountain range within Tonkin. Throughout the interwar period, mining products ranked fourth in Indochina's exports, accounting for 4 to 8% of the total export value of Indochina.

4.2.4. Investment and Technology Situation

When the French began their first phase of colonial exploitation in Indochina, the development of the mining industry in Indochina accelerated faster than the overall economic development of the country. During the period 1888-1919, most coal was mined manually, primarily by human labor. Mechanization of the mining industry only became widespread after the 1920s. In mines, roof supports were usually made of wood; later, steel supports became more common in some mines.

4.2.5. Labor situation

Mining workers in Indochina employed approximately 0.5% of the country's workforce. At the beginning of the 20th century, Indochina's mines employed 270 skilled European technicians and managers, and 49,200 Asians. About three-quarters of these were employed in coal mining. By regulation, the maximum percentage of foreign workers, including French nationals, that could be employed was 10% of the total workforce in coal mining and 5% in all other mines. Initially, the Chinese were the most widely employed in the mines due to their superior health, experience, and skills. However, in later years, the Vietnamese replaced the Chinese (by the 1930s, Vietnamese workers accounted for 90% of the mine workforce).

4.2.6. Coal and metal consumption situation

With the colonial government's policy of increasing the export content of goods, the entire output of metal minerals mined in Indochina was exported. Until 1914, Indochinese tin ore was exported to Singapore, while zinc ore was exported to Europe, with Germany being the main importer. During World War I, when the European market was blockaded, Indochinese metal ores sought to be sold in the Far East market because at this time, Japanese industry was increasing its imports of raw materials and fuels, including metal ores from Indochina, to meet its development needs.

Summary of Chapter 4

Although lagging behind the Chinese in exploiting and profiting from Vietnam's resources, the French, as a leading colonial power in Europe and the world, possessing a developed industry with a high level of scientific and technological advancement, gradually penetrated, invaded, pacified, and imposed colonial rule on Vietnam. The French progressively explored, occupied, and intensified mining activities in Tonkin (Northern Vietnam), one of the economic pillars of colonial exploitation in Indochina.

Unlike the Le-Trinh or Nguyen dynasties, which allowed foreign merchants (including Chinese) to participate in mining, the French implemented a policy of granting exclusive ownership and exploitation rights to the French. The colonial government also implemented administrative measures to create favorable conditions in terms of policy, finance, and taxation, benefiting the mine owners. Also, unlike the weak management policies of previous Vietnamese feudal governments, the French focused on investing in and managing the mining industry using a superior, modern method (management based on maps and boundaries, regulations on mining conditions and ownership periods, mechanized equipment, and the application of modern mining and ore processing technologies). These are the differences and two outstanding characteristics of the mining industry during the French colonial period compared to the Vietnamese mining industry during the feudal era.

Chapter 5

OBSERVATIONS ON FOREIGN MINING ACTIVITIES IN VIETNAM

5.1. The dominance of the Chinese in mining activities in Northern Vietnam

The development of mining activities, including those involving the Chinese, in the northern highlands of Vietnam became a driving force behind the development of currency and a commodity economy, fostering cross-border trade relations between Tonkin and Southern China, contributing to the dynamism of new economic centers in the cities of Tonkin, as well as at the mineral mines in the northern highlands of Vietnam.

5.2. Encouraging the French to intensify their colonization and economic exploitation in Tonkin.

The enormous profits from the mining industry – alongside processing and plantation industries – were one of the key drivers behind the French colonial administration and capitalists' efforts to colonize and exploit the economy in Tonkin in particular. The initial results of this policy laid the basic foundations and provided an important premise for two large-scale colonial exploitation campaigns by the French in Indochina.

5.3. Causing resource depletion

Possessing more advanced mining technology, experience, techniques, and methods, Chinese merchants and laborers played an increasingly important role in the mining industry in the northern highlands of Vietnam. However, these advantages of the Chinese contributed little to the economy of Dai Viet and even led to the depletion of the nation's resources.

5.4. Causing waves of migration

In Southeast Asia, along with Myanmar, Vietnam is geographically and culturally close to China, and therefore heavily influenced by Chinese civilization. The boom in mining activities in northern Vietnam has led to uncontrollable waves of Chinese migration to border regions, potentially fueling social instability such as crime, robbery, and banditry.

5.5. Influences on China

Mining activities by the Chinese and French in northern Vietnam from the late 17th to the early 20th centuries had direct and multifaceted impacts not only on Vietnamese society but also caused both direct and indirect effects on China and France.

5.6. Impacts on France

Besides influencing the political situation in South China, mining activities in North Vietnam also had a significant impact on the political, economic, and social situation of the French in Indochina.

Summary of Chapter 5

Foreign mining activities in the northern highlands of Vietnam from the late 17th to the early 20th centuries had multifaceted impacts on life, not only causing instability in Vietnamese society but also affecting southern China and even influencing the political calculations of the French ruling class.

With its advantageous geographical location, the development of cross-border economic exchanges in the socio-economic context of Northern Vietnam from the mid-17th century, combined with favorable policies of the Vietnamese feudal dynasties, fostered the emergence and formation of large-scale mining activities by the Chinese in Northern Vietnam during this period. Furthermore, with their advantages in mining experience, techniques, and capital, the Chinese gained control over many mining sites in the mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam. This situation persisted for a long time, leading to waves of migration from Southern China to Northern Vietnam. This not only created difficulties for the Le-Trinh government in controlling the situation in the mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam but also resulted in the loss of mineral resources due to the Chinese secretly smuggling ore across the border.

The French intensified colonial exploitation and economic oppression in Indochina, including the exploitation of mineral resources in Tonkin, not only brought about significant political changes in Vietnamese society and disrupted economic and social structures, but also led to partial industrialization of production, increased monetary exchange, and the application of scientific and technological achievements to production activities and methods.

Thus, it can be concluded that, from an economic perspective, mining in North Vietnam was one of the important sources of supply that compensated for the shortage of copper and silver in China during the 17th and 18th centuries, as well as partially meeting the demand for coal and metals in mainland France after the Franco-Prussian War of the 19th century. From a political perspective, mining activities in North Vietnam were also a crucial link contributing to the socio-economic stability of South China and to the prosperity of the colonial economy established by the French in Indochina.

CONCLUDE

1. Research on mining activities by foreigners in the northern highlands of Vietnam from the late 17th to the early 20th centuries has revealed the potential, position, and attractiveness of one of the areas heavily impacted by the southward expansion of the Chinese empire, as well as being known as one of the wealthiest regions in the French colonial system.

This area is both a unique economic zone of the nation with abundant forest and agricultural resources, and a strategically important region in terms of politics, economics, and military affairs.

For about three centuries, from the late 17th to the early 20th century, the northern highlands of Vietnam were an important part not only of Vietnam but also a border region between Vietnam and China. The richness and diversity of its geographical location and soil geology made the northern highlands a plentiful source of forest and agricultural resources, sustaining the survival and development of the communities living there for centuries. Geographical and historical accounts of this region show it to be a densely populated area rich in natural forest and agricultural resources, including diverse and abundant mineral deposits. With the strong attraction of these abundant mineral resources, coupled with the opening and development of the commercial and industrial economy in Northern Vietnam during the 17th and 18th centuries, Northern Vietnam played a role and held a position as a resource and a driving force encouraging foreign powers to strongly participate in mining activities in the mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam during the Le-Trinh period (late 17th-18th centuries), the Nguyen period (first half of the 19th century), and under French colonial rule (late 19th-early 20th centuries).

Favorable geographical and socio-economic conditions from the late 17th to the early 20th centuries created favorable conditions for the development of mining activities by foreigners in the northern highlands of Vietnam. In addition, the influx of Chinese people from across the border, stemming from population growth, the need to seek resources outside of Chinese territory, and following major political upheavals in China, along with the formation of Chinese communities in Vietnam as a relatively stable demographic entity within the Vietnamese social structure starting from the 17th century, combined with favorable Vietnamese policies, are explained as the basis for the emergence and formation of large-scale mining activities by the Chinese in the northern highlands of Vietnam.

2. Through the reconstruction and re-illustration of a comprehensive picture of a unique economic sector in Vietnamese society over three centuries, the prominent characteristics of foreign miners compared to Vietnamese miners were their extensive experience, technical expertise in mining, and superior organization and management of mines and human resources. It can be seen that with the emergence of large-scale mining enterprises requiring significant investment, merchants emerged, owning capital and hiring workers to exploit large mining areas. This contrasts sharply with Vietnamese miners, who, despite their increasing numbers, remained deeply connected to their land, their farming seasons, and their homeland.

This explains why, for three centuries, Chinese merchants and miners, as well as French capitalists and mine owners, played a crucial role in Vietnam's mining economy. Private Vietnamese mining operations could not compete with the large-scale foreign mining operations. As merchants and contractors, these forces consistently profited from their extensive experience and deep knowledge of the mining systems in the northern highlands of Vietnam.

3. By maintaining large-scale mining activities continuously for nearly three centuries, those involved in the mining economy in Northern Vietnam created a fundamental transformation for the socio-economic landscape of the northern highlands, leading to the formation of densely populated settlements with diverse ethnic groups. These centers became important economic and cultural hubs, laying the groundwork for the later formation of economic cities in Northern Vietnam such as Cao Bang, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Lao Cai, and Tuyen Quang.

The development of mining activities in northern Vietnam has been ongoing on a large scale for a long time. Besides the negative impacts on the host country in general and the local region in particular, it has also become a powerful driving force for trade, leading to a boom in cross-border, inter-regional, and inter-regional trade relations between Vietnam and Southern China, between Vietnam and Japan, Southeast Asia, and Western countries. Simultaneously, it has created rapid changes in the economic, cultural, and social landscape of the region, along with instability and changes in political security and social order.

4. The awareness of protecting sovereignty and resources, as well as the attitudes and management policies of the Vietnamese monarchies throughout different periods, lacked uniformity and effectiveness. Although the Vietnamese feudal governments were very conscious of protecting sovereignty and ensuring border security (such as the issue of the Tu Long copper mine during the Le-Trinh period in the early 18th century), they still showed complacency and negligence. As a result, they implemented management policies that were not truly reliable or effective in protecting the country's sovereignty and resources.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the indirect management policy of the Le-Trinh government, through supervisory officials or local bureaucrats, regarding mining activities in the mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam, seemed effective in form, but did not generate much revenue for the state. Instead, it directly benefited the local leaders entrusted with management, merchants, and foreign miners.

Despite implementing measures to restrict the role of the Chinese in mining activities, the results were not as expected and could not prevent their advantage in competing for rich mineral resources. The corruption, tax evasion, and bribery by local officials from mine owners rendered the imperial government's mineral resource management policies ineffective. Although the Vietnamese state system prohibited the transportation and consumption of minerals across borders, these laws only restricted overt transport and were completely incapable of preventing the flow of minerals out of the country through unofficial channels. From changes in state management policies and the upheavals of socio-political life, the foreign powers and their mining activities were an undeniable reality, existing and taking place in the northern highlands of Vietnam throughout three centuries of significant change.

5. Foreign mining activities have affected almost all aspects of the political, economic, cultural, and social life of the northern highlands of Vietnam.

From a political perspective, the mining activities of the Chinese in the northern highlands of Vietnam had a significant impact on the socio-political life of the country, directly or indirectly causing instability in Vietnamese society in general, and the northern highlands in particular. It not only had direct and multifaceted impacts on Vietnamese society but also created both direct and indirect influences on both China and France. However, disregarding these negative factors, it can be argued that the mining activities of the Chinese and French in this region were an important link contributing to the economic and social stability of southern China, as well as to the prosperity of the colonial economy established by the French in Indochina.

Economically, mining activities by the Chinese in the highlands of northern Vietnam from the late 17th to the first half of the 19th century, while providing tax revenue for Dai Viet, resulted in serious resource depletion. Nevertheless, the vigorous mining in the border region contributed to the creation of settlements and trade centers, promoting the participation of the highlands of Dang Ngoai in the border trade system between northern Dai Viet and southern China, as well as the trade system between Dai Viet and China and other East Asian countries. At this time, China became an unofficial market for Dai Viet's minerals. Meanwhile, mining activities by the French in Tonkin from the late 19th to the first half of the 20th centuries allowed Vietnam to initially participate in and become part of the global trade system by connecting with the economy of mainland France and its colonies. Mining products such as coal and zinc have become export items to Europe as well as other countries and regions.

Socially, the contact and interaction between Vietnamese culture and Chinese and Western civilizations occurred over a period of ups and downs, intensifying in the early decades of the 20th century when Vietnamese society, like other Eastern nations, was under the same colonial rule. This cultural contact and interaction was both coercive and voluntary, absorbing the essence of more developed civilizations with different attitudes and behaviors. Vietnam transitioned from a feudal monarchy to a protectorate and colony. Along with the introduction of Western civilization, new labor forces emerged, based on the miners. This force subsequently became a new class, with interests antagonistic to those of the feudal landlords and capitalists.

Finally, the involvement of foreigners in the northern highlands of Vietnam contributed to waves of migration of tens of thousands of Chinese miners and traders. This situation fostered cultural contact and exchange through marriage and labor relationships. The result was a diversity of ethnicity, culture, language, and beliefs within a volatile region whose boundaries were sometimes only relatively defined and influenced by the prevailing political regimes. Furthermore, migration as a process of interaction between communities on both sides of the border presented a reality that local authorities found difficult to manage effectively.

 

LIST OF AUTHOR'S SCIENTIFIC WORKS RELATED TO THE THESIS

1. Tran Xuan Thanh (2015), “Mining activities of the Chinese in the highlands of Northern Vietnam during the Le-Trinh period (17th-18th centuries)”,Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, (181), pp. 63-70.

2. Tran Xuan Thanh (2015), “Mining activities of the Chinese in the highlands of Northern Vietnam,Journal of Chinese Studies,(163) pp. 56-66.

3. Tran Xuan Thanh (2015), “Chinese people and mining in Northern Vietnam during the Le-Trinh period (17th-18th centuries)”,Past and Present Magazine, (458), pp. 36-40.

4. Tran Xuan Thanh (2019), “Mining situation in Central Vietnam in the 19th century (through some historical documents)”,Central Vietnam Social Sciences Journal, (57), pp. 67-76.

5. Tran Xuan Thanh (2020), “The emergence of mining activities by the Chinese and some impacts on Dai Viet society in the 17th – 19th centuries”,Journal of Social Sciences Information,(450).